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Mangoloids are evil creatures from the movie The Fifth Element.
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Who is Alen Požar?
majmune, invalid, mangoloid, umetnik...
People who make a contribution in sociology?
there is great contribution of various thinkers at global level. few among them are as follow.G. S. Ghurye : Ghurye caste and RaceProfessor Govind. Sadashive Ghurye first Indian sociologist who has a great role in contributing sociological views ,not only in Indian Sociology but at global level he would have been remembered till the existence of sociology. Born on 12th December ,1893 at western shore of small Malwan town, had started his primary education along with study of Sanskrit. He did his matriculation from Junagarh in Gujarat ,graduation with first class from Bombay University in 1916 and post graduation in Sanskrit in 1918,and P.G in English in1920.After that he went to England for further study of Sociology.He was student of famous sociologist L.T. Hob house in England. Here he met with famous anthropologist A.C Haddon and Rivers who were undertaking their studies on various tribes and their cultures. As he was influenced by these thinkers so he wrote his articles on castes and races. In 1923 he presented his great research work on 'Caste and Race in India,' which was awarded with PhD degree of famous Cambridge university.. On his return from Cambridge, where he wrote his doctoral dissertation under W.H.R. Rivers and later A.C. Haddon, Ghurye succeeded Sir Patric Geddes as Head of Department of Sociology in the University of Bombay in 1934. He continued to head the Department until his retirement in 1959. After retirement, he was designated the first Emeritus Professor in the University of Bombay. On 28th December 1983, he took his last breathin the age of 90 years .Ghurye's contribution to the development of sociology and anthropology in India is enormous and multi-faceted. A prolific writer, Ghurye wrote 32 books and scores of papers, which cover such wide-ranging themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, ascetic traditions, tribal life, demography, architecture and literature.Ghurye played a key role in the professionalism of sociology by founding the Indian Sociological Society and its journal Sociological Bulletin. In addition, he encouraged and trained a large number of talented students who, in turn, advanced the frontiers of sociological and anthropological research in the country. With his own voluminous output and through the researches of his able students Ghurye embarked on an ambitious project of mapping out the ethnographic landscape of India Professor.Life sketch And works of G. S. Ghurye- A prolific writer, he wrote 32 books and many research papers, which cover such topics themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, customary traditions, tribal life, racial life, demography, architecture, literature and Sanskrit.The famous among them few are as follow:1-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc.2- in 1943 he published his book 'Scheduled tribes 'which says about classification of tribes and Government policies for the same.3-In 1947 his book on "Culture and Society" was published ,which has description of Indian social ,art ,costumes ,architecture, literature and demography.4-In 1953 his famous book on 'Indian Sadhus'was published which describes Indian history of these saints and hermits and religious structure of India.5-In 1962 his book 'Cities and Civilization' was published which describes history of city life of various 14 countries in last 60 years and presents socio historical description of Bombay.6-In 1963 his book 'Anatomy of 'Rururban Community' was published, on the basis of scope ,it explains the structural features of city and rural life. It also describes changing patterns of these societies after independence.7-In 1965 his book on' Religious Consciousness' was published ,which explains about main bases of culture like Religious Consciousness ,justice ,knowledge ,freedom of expression, tolerance etc. He also has given the description of universal, rebirth, main Gods and Goddesses, piousness of religious places etc.8-In his book Social Tension in India he has explained the social problems arisen by social tension (after Indian independence).He had observed it minutely and presented its concerned data.His all publications are related with Indian cultural features and solidarity of cultural elements. He has used the term of Acculturation , which is related to give and take of cultural elements. He has accepted supremacy of Brahmins in reference of social value system and social institutions. he has admitted that in the past such institutions have achieved great successes in system of work performances ,but at present these are not so useful.In 1952 he has established Indian Sociological Society which is so important that till today it organizes annual seminars every year. The professional utility of the sociology has been increased by this society. In 1954 an half yearly research journal named 'Sociological Bulletin 'has been started by this society. This is reason why some call him father of sociology in India.Caste System In India-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published, which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. He interpreted in detail about the various aspects of caste system in India. Later on his revised edition describes the caste class and occupation of Indian community. He has also explained the changing patterns of caste system and he expressed his view that with the development of scientific education, industrialization, and urbanization, the disparity among caste system would be decreased. Later on he realized that as the caste based political and social organization are developing. it is difficult to eliminate caste system by existing laws.Dr Ghurye was knowledgeable thinker who had good knowledge of Indology and had have studied various books of religions in Sanskrit. On the basis of his these books, he concluded that the all caste system is deliberate attempt of Brahmins to show their supremacy in Indian society. First this caste system originated at shore of river Ganges and Jamuna in north Indian society, later on it speeded at entire Indian society.Features of Caste System of India -According to Dr Ghurye following are the features of caste system:1-Segmental Division-There are so many division and sub divisions of caste system. The members of every division have fixed status and roles and works .According to statuses they have to perform their roles. There is moral ethics ,obligation and justification value behind these roles. All these roles are different in nature from other roles of other people of other division.2-Hierarchy-There is Hierarchy of status and roles. In other words we can say there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached to them to show the higher or lower status of people in a particular division .As already explained the supremacy of Brahamins are at top place ,the second and the third place is given to Khatris and Vaishios and untouchable like other service providers were placed at the fourth place. On the basis of piousness and supremacy there is Hierarchy of lower and upper classes .It is moral duty of the people to give maximum respect to Brahmins.3-Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse. They have some rules been imposed to all caste people. Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse is still prevails in Indian societies. There are two types of cooked food called Kachha(raw or boiled ) and pakka(ripe or fried ) food. Upper caste people can not have kachha food touched by lower castes people. They even can not have water touched by these lower caste people. In emergency they can accept Pakka food of lower castes excluding untouchables. During birth, death and marriages, they invite to their caste people only. The untouchables are kept aside in every matter. There is provision of caste marriages.4-Civil and Religious Disabilities and privileges. There are special powers and rights to people of higher castes while many disabilities have been imposed to untouchables in areas of public utility places. The untouchable can not take water from public wells. They are not allowed to get entry in religious temples or any other social and educational places.5-Restrictions regarding Occupation. The occupations have been fixed by heredity, Generally they have been not allowed to change their traditional occupations .All caste people maintain their supremacy and secrecy in their jobs and not allowed outer group to join his occupation. The upper castes people like Brahmins are free to opt the study of religious books ,while this can not be done by other classes. The lower natured job's people like sweeping bathrooms, washing clothes, making iron things have been kept in untouchable categories. Due to heavy population in lower category they again have been divided in further categories.6-Restriction regarding Marriages. Indian caste system is based on endogamy .In other words we can say it occurred marriage restriction .people can marry within caste only not out of caste. To disobey these marriage rules is not treated only as crime but it is treated sin also. The caste Panchayat take full care of it, if any person disobeyed it ,he has been severally punished by caste Panchayats.Relationship between Caste and Kinship: By this caste system ,every caste has various hereditarily clan groups .Every caste has been divided in various such blood relative groups called clans. The same caste people with different clan are called kinships groups. The kinship is endogamy group, where people take care that no body can marry a person of own clan people. As all clan members are same blood relatives so treated as brothers and sisters and they can not marry with other. The moral ethics say that the marriage among such brothers and sisters are not appropriate.Ghurye says that this restriction has made organization of caste system more strong. Moreover there is wider scope of marriage for all members. The marriages among blood relatives is not considered appropriate from genetic point of view also. But due to industrialization and urbanization, and spread of education the rules of kinship and marriages are being loosened.Caste and Politics-According to Ghurye the earlier caste system and divisions of castes were based on racial discriminations. The two main races Indo Aryan and Drawirns were settled over here. When Aryan defeated Drawirns and captured the Indian culture ,they treated Drawirns as their subordinators. Gradually they treated them as untouchables. Up till medieval age this system of caste was working in Indian structure.Muslim rulers did not show any interest to break down the rules of this Hindu caste system. They were in mood to defeat these small caste based rulers and make them merged in to their kingdom. During British rule three significant changes took place in this system. A- Equal laws for all Indians castes,B-Industrial developments provided new opportunities of jobs to all casts C-A developed administrative machinery provided security to all people.This caste system was proved to be beneficial for British people and they did not try to abolish it. Many British Sociologist and anthropologists expressed their views on exploitation of lowers caste people. Their expression gave resentfulness to lower class people. This feeling of separation was recognized by local administration and many such caste trusts were given importance. Indirectly this policy of British rule encouraged to castism. This feeling of separation was hindrance in the development of nationality.After independence Ghurye noticed that selfish attitude of various political parties, have increased the separation of all castes. Various attracting programs were shown to public by political parties .This was psychological exploitation of deprived in democratic society. Ghurye was not in favor of giving reservation to Scheduled castes people for unlimited time .Rather he was in favor in providing more opportunities in field of economic and education.Caste and Class- Ghurye's book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. In his book Ghurye described how old caste system is loosening its roots. The changing patterns of castes are occurred due to development of education and training ,disorganization of joint family system , industrialization and introduction of new laws. The other factors responsible for loose caste system are, changing attitude of equality to all and lesser influence of caste Panchayats.Ghurye states that what other factors are responsible which are encouraging to features of separation of class than features of caste. Now days class consciousness is more active than caste consciousness. Because formation of classes are based on equality. Today caste system is only important up to some extent which gives them strong political support so that they can increase their political power. Like classes there is an openness of castes also occurred .In world of materialistic there is less role of caste. while class has more importance which is based on economic and political powers.Ghurye has agreed with the view of Durkheim that in process of division of labor there is equal role of every labor. The division of labor is based on class structure. Ghurye was not agreed with the view of Karl Marx that there are always two classes in society .Actually there many classes in society like capitalist ,middle class ,lower class, farmers class etc. Only ownership of means of production is not factor to decide class as Karl Marx expresses his view. The political power ,property, education and individual efficiency counts the status.Views of Ghurye on Race-before getting the views of Ghurye it is important to understand the concept of race. The question of human races is related to the origin of modern human beings. Most anthropologists today reject the idea that the human population can be divided into biologically defined races. Physical features of modern human beings change gradually from one region to another, making it difficult to draw a dividing line between them. However, anthropologists have observed that groups of people who have lived in certain parts of the world for many thousands of years tend to differ in appearance from groups in other parts of the world. These differences are probably mutations and adaptations to local environments. For example, people whose ancestors have lived for generations in sunny climates tend to have dark skin. Dark pigment helps protect the skin from sunburn and reduces the risk of skin cancer.In words of Merrill, "race is biological term referring to certain physical similarities among large group of persons that are transmitted through the mechanism of heredity."(Society and Culture. P 253).The term race once commonly used in physical anthropology to denote a division of humankind possessing traits that are transmissible by descent and sufficient to characterize it as a distinct human type On the basis of physical traits .there are three major groups of races known Caucasoid(white skinned mostly settled in USA,UK), Mongoloid (Yellow skinned mostly settled in India and China)and Negroid(Black skinned mostly settled in USA,south Africa )According to Green, "A race is a large, biological ,human groping, with a number of distinctive inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range."Education , language ,religion etc are man made cultural concepts while race based physical traits are related with biological concepts.According to Biesanz"a race is a large group of people distinguished by inherited physical differences." According to kroeber "A race is a valid biological concept.It is group divided by heredity, a breed or genetic strain or subspecies."Today the term has little scientific standing, as older methods of differentiation, including hair form and body measurement, have given way to the comparative analysis of DNA and gene frequencies relating to such factors as blood typing, the excretion of amino acids, and inherited enzyme deficiencies. Because all human populations today are extremely similar genetically, most researchers have abandoned the concept of race for the concept of the cline, a graded series of differences occurring along a line of environmental or geographical transition. This reflects the recognition that human populations have always been in a state of change, with genes constantly flowing from one gene pool to another, only by physical or ecological boundaries. While relative isolation does preserve genetic differences and allow populations to maximally adapt to climatic and disease factors over long periods of time.The important features which can be distinguished from one racial group to another are blood group. cephalic index, nasal index, stature, skin color ,hair texture, eye pattern and color, lips formation, etc. On the basis of these traits above three categories of Caucasoid,Mongoloid and Negroid have been classified.In other countries this classification is very clear while in India due to crossing and mixing ,this can not be done easily. In 1931 Dr B.S.Guha was first thinker who concluded that on the basis of such traits there is an oldest race Negarito in India which is branch of Negroid .Herbert Risley was second anthropologist who has mentioned seven types of races of India on the basis of physical traits.1-Turko- Iranian-this race is found in population of Baluchistan and north western part of Indian population.2-Indo -Aryan-this is part of Caucasoid race .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan.3-Mangoloid-The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race.4-Dravidian-This is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in Hyderabad, Chennai, Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges .these people have broad nose.5-Aryo- Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Indo -Aryan and Dravidian people .This race has long sizes head and found in Utter Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.6- Mongoloid-Dravidian- This is combination and crossings of Mongoloid-Dravidian .They have broad head and wider nose. These people are found in lower parts of Bengal and Orisa.7-Seytho-Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Seython and -Dravidian. In western part of India they have strong hold. They have broad head and thin nose.Views of Ghurye on Race-he has not approved the views of Risley and Guha. In History of Civilization and Caste and Class in India he has expressed his view on Ethnic groups.He states that as in caste system there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached, same way races also have same feeling of superiority and inferiority. Some feel high themselves in regard of intelligence and cultural heritage and believed that their blood is more pure than others. The Caucasoid race people thinks themselves superior to Mongoloid and Negroid .The people of Caucasoid race keep distance to Negroid to maintain purity of blood.Dr Ghurye did not agreed with the views of other anthropologists and said that there is no such scientific measurement to see the people on basis of their traits.According to Dr Ghurye following six groups are of racial distribution of Hindu population:1- Indo -Aryan- this is part of Caucasoidrace .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan and joint province (U.P, M.P, Haryana and Delhi). Simultaneously lower castes of joint province have some features of Pre-Dravidian and Munda types traits.2- Pre-DravidianThis is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in forests of Hyderabad, Chennai, and hilly areas of central India / Madhya Pradesh, and forests of Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges. these people have broad nose, long face and black or brown skin color.3- The Dravidian-long head, medium are main symptoms of this group. The maximum people settles in Malayalam and Tamil areas. Many have matriarchal family system. The nayar ,tiyan and Valhalla are some representative races.4- The Western type-Ghurye is not agreed with Risle's Mongoloid-Dravidian and indoDravidian combinations. According to him some people of Western coast and Maharashtra are nearer to western type.There is no sign of mongoloid traits in them.5- -The Munda type -In Jharkhand's chhotanagpur are we see such people.As far as population of Bihar is concerned the combination of Indo -Aryan, Pre-Dravidian and Munda people are found in this population6-Mongoloid The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race. Ghurye is agreed with this classification of Risley.On the basis of racial differentiation Ghurye made classification of Indian caste system. Though he was not agreed with entire views of Risely but at some extent he has similarities in views of regarding origin of a caste system. The basic concept of purity of blood is taken from racial classifications.Ghurye admitted that before coming to India, Indo Aryan group were pretty impressed by the culture of Romanian. In elite class of Roman culture , there was system of slaves for lower classes. The Aryans have adopted the same trend, when they defeated black skinned Dravidian, in various conflicts. The Dravidian were treated like slaves , servants and untouchables. The feeling of piousness and impiousness made Brahmins high ranked people. For this they propagated their superiority .Ghurye also has adopted rules of social distance ,(taken from racial discrimination,) among the various castes. On the basis of occupation Indo Aryans were divided in to four categories named Brahmins, Shatriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The most influential category named Brahmins had special powers and rights of hypergamy(hypergamy.a Hindu custom which compels a woman to marry into a caste of equal or superior rank or Brahmins could have many marriages with either caste's girls ) The best system was marriage was to have the marriage within own castes. The people who got brides of other castes , their children were placed at lower status .Thus the rules of social contact and rules of feeding have been developed by crossing and mixing of various castes .Due to hypergamy new castes had originated and children of such marriages were being treated as impious one. They were kept away from many social , economic and religious rights.Ultimately Ghurye concluded that "Caste in India is a Brahmanic child of Indo Aryan culture,craded in the land of the Gangas and Jamuna and thence transferred to other parts of the country."Ghurye's classification of Hindu caste system of India was basically based on racial discrimination .The same hierarchy of races was adopted by him and the rules of social distance was also followed by him. The feeling of Superiority and inferiority among various castes has been also attached with it .No geographical area of division is perfect base of caste system so this was not adopted in general. Therefore Ghurye has presented integrated approach of caste and race classifications.guste Comte-(1898-1857)He is considered as father of sociology. Comte was born at Montpellier, in France. He founded the philosophy of positivism, and originated a concept of social science known as sociology.Comte sought to discover the laws that he believed governed the evolution of the mind. In his six-volume work, The Course of Positive Philosophy (1830-1842), he framed his "law of the three states." This law advanced the idea that people try to understand phenomena in three ways. Comte believed that people first seek a theological (supernatural) explanation; then a metaphysical (abstract) explanation; and finally a positive explanation. The positive explanation is derived from an objective examination of the phenomena. Comte believed that students should concern themselves only with phenomena that have an objective, "positive," existence. This belief forms a basis of positivism. He also has given importance to "social static and social Mobility" and cleared that changes of society can be understood on these basis. His contribution in field of Social reconstruction is related to social welfare of human beings ,which should be studied with social methods.Comte regarded all social thought as an interrelated whole, the laws of which can be found by assembling what he considered the facts. His ideas have influenced students of historical and social theory, and of criminology, and such authors as Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill, who were seeking a "science of society."Spencer, Herbert(1820-1903), was a British philosopher. He attempted to work out a comprehensive philosophy based on the scientific discoveries of his day. Spencer was greatly influenced by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. He applied his own and Darwin's fundamental law--the idea of evolution (gradual development)--to biology, psychology, sociology, and other fields. Spencer's major works include First Principles (1862) and Principles of Ethics (1879-1893).In his work, Spencer traced the development of life from its lowest recognizable form up to human beings. He believed that the great law of nature is the constant action of forces which tend to change all forms from the simple to the complex. He explained that the mind of human beings has developed in this way, advancing from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the reasoning processes of human beings. According to him it(scope of sociology )should study family, religion social control, division of labor, politics etc.Marx, Karl(1818-1883), was a German philosopher, social scientist, and professional revolutionary. Few writers have had such a great and lasting influence on the world. The main reason of social change is ,change in economic relationship. Due to clashing interests of both ,there is always clashing relationship between owner and labor,which brings change in society.In sociology, Marx's work is also regarded with increasing respect. Without his contributions, sociology would not have developed into what it is today. Marx wrote on social classes, on the relationship between the economy and the state, and on the principles that underlie a political or economic system.Many people still turn to Marx for an explanation of current social, economic, and political evils. But most of them are unlikely to agree with his view of the ease and speed with which the working class will overthrow the class system and set up a Communist classless society.Emile Durkheim(1858-1917), was a French sociologist. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Durkheim disagreed with most social theorists of the late 1800's because they thought that individual psychology was the basis of sociology. Durkheim regarded sociology as the study of the society that surrounds and influences the individual. Durkheim explained his theories in his book The Rules of Sociological Method (1895). He says there is relationship between moral values and religious beliefs, which establishes unity in society.In The Division of Labour (1893), Durkheim developed the theory that societies are bound together by two sources of unity. He called these sources mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to similarities that many people in the society share, such as values and religious beliefs. Organic solidarity results from the division of labour into specialized jobs. Durkheim believed that the division of labour makes people depend on one another and thus helps create unity in a society. Durkheim studied thousands of cases of suicide to demonstrate his theory that a person commits suicide because of the influence of society. He explained this theory in Suicide (1897).Max Weber- (1864-1920), Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Heidelberg. Other important workby Weber is Essays in Sociology and The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Weber considered bureaucracy to be the most important feature of modern society. Bureaucracy is a method of organization based on specialization of duties, action according to rules, and a stable order of authority. Weber also developed an ideal type method for studying society. This method studies the basic elements of social institutions and how these elements relate to one another .According to him scope of sociology is study and interpretation of social actions.A.R Desai was born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad in Gujarat and died in 1994 at Baroda. He consistently advocated and applied dialectical-historical model in his sociological studies. He closely studied the works of Marx and Engels and the writings of Trotsky. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field research. He rejects any interpretations of tradition with reference to religion, rituals and festivities. It is essentially a secular phenomenon. He finds it in family, village and other social institutions. He also does not find the origin of tradition in western culture. He considers that the emerging contradictions in the Indian process of social transformation arise mainly from the growing nexus among the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty-bourgeoisie and a state apparatus all drawn from similar social rootsProfessor Desai did his PhD under the guidance of Dr Ghurye in 1945.From very beginning he had interest in study of deprived classes of India. Right from days of 1951 he started to work of teaching in Bombay university, where he appointed as reader of Sociology. In 1959,when Dr Ghurye had retired ,he was appointed as head of department of sociology in same place. Due to interest in study of deprived classes, he was strong supporter of views of Karl Marx. He was founder member of Indian Sociological Society. In 1964 he read his important research paper on Rural Problems in third conference of sociology . After this paper he earned his more name and fame in field of Sociology.Dr Desai took part in France Rural Conference; Along with study and teaching he had interest in politics also. He has been member of Indian Communist Party. In 1953 he got membership of Trotskyism revolutionary socialism party. In 1994 he expired which was great loss in field of Sociology. His some books are very important which are as follow-In 1948 he wrote his first book named "Social Background of Indian Nationalism" which was based on interpretation of Dialectical Materialism of Karl Marx. The book is all about beginning and development of Indian national movement. He has used historical method in sociological study of phenomenon.The second important book of Desai is Rural Sociology in India. This book is edited by Desai and various writers have contributed their important views in The editing of the book is very systematical and logical, this is very useful book for students of sociology.His book Rural India in Transition is written on about government's policies and changing patterns of rural Structure. He has specially mentioned the land reforms, rural panchayats, Bhudan (Land donation)consequence of cooperative movements etc in this book. He also included other topics like up to what extent the mixed economy and individual ownership on land is being successful in India.Recent Trends in Indian Nationalism is his another important book. This is ever first book written on 'Indian nationalism' before independence. He also has explained conditions and futures of' Indian nationalism' after independence and thrown light on factors of hindrance in development of 'Indian nationalism'. He took help of sociological approach for studying change of social and political phenomenon.India's Path of Development : A Marxist Approach,this is also important book written by Desai. In this book he describes that how and up to what extent the implementation of the Government of India's development programs and life standard and economy of Indian people is influenced by Marxist Approach . He disagrees that maximum Government of India's development programs to solve the public problems are appropriate. He criticized the bureaucracy system of government.Desai's book on State and Society: Essays in India is also has great importance. He has described in this book about the relationship of society and state ,nature and origin of state ,development of state in India, functions and features of state, interpretation of monarchy system and ideal system etc. He also has described that how constitutionally a welfare state can fulfill the needs of deprived classes. He has opinion that the Government of India's development programs is influenced by policies of British administration and system of capitalism. Basically this book is also influenced by views of Karl Marx.
Who name is the current representative from your area?
there is great contribution of various thinkers at global level. few among them are as follow.G. S. Ghurye : Ghurye caste and RaceProfessor Govind. Sadashive Ghurye first Indian sociologist who has a great role in contributing sociological views ,not only in Indian Sociology but at global level he would have been remembered till the existence of sociology. Born on 12th December ,1893 at western shore of small Malwan town, had started his primary education along with study of Sanskrit. He did his matriculation from Junagarh in Gujarat ,graduation with first class from Bombay University in 1916 and post graduation in Sanskrit in 1918,and P.G in English in1920.After that he went to England for further study of Sociology.He was student of famous sociologist L.T. Hob house in England. Here he met with famous anthropologist A.C Haddon and Rivers who were undertaking their studies on various tribes and their cultures. As he was influenced by these thinkers so he wrote his articles on castes and races. In 1923 he presented his great research work on 'Caste and Race in India,' which was awarded with PhD degree of famous Cambridge university.. On his return from Cambridge, where he wrote his doctoral dissertation under W.H.R. Rivers and later A.C. Haddon, Ghurye succeeded Sir Patric Geddes as Head of Department of Sociology in the University of Bombay in 1934. He continued to head the Department until his retirement in 1959. After retirement, he was designated the first Emeritus Professor in the University of Bombay. On 28th December 1983, he took his last breathin the age of 90 years .Ghurye's contribution to the development of sociology and Anthropology in India is enormous and multi-faceted. A prolific writer, Ghurye wrote 32 books and scores of papers, which cover such wide-ranging themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, ascetic traditions, tribal life, demography, architecture and literature.Ghurye played a key role in the professionalism of sociology by founding the Indian Sociological Society and its journal Sociological Bulletin. In addition, he encouraged and trained a large number of talented students who, in turn, advanced the frontiers of sociological and anthropological research in the country. With his own voluminous output and through the researches of his able students Ghurye embarked on an ambitious project of mapping out the ethnographic landscape of India Professor.Life sketch And works of G. S. Ghurye- A prolific writer, he wrote 32 books and many research papers, which cover such topics themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, customary traditions, tribal life, racial life, demography, architecture, literature and Sanskrit.The famous among them few are as follow:1-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc.2- in 1943 he published his book 'Scheduled tribes 'which says about classification of tribes and Government policies for the same.3-In 1947 his book on "Culture and Society" was published ,which has description of Indian social ,art ,costumes ,architecture, literature and demography.4-In 1953 his famous book on 'Indian Sadhus'was published which describes Indian history of these saints and hermits and religious structure of India.5-In 1962 his book 'Cities and Civilization' was published which describes history of city life of various 14 countries in last 60 years and presents socio historical description of Bombay.6-In 1963 his book 'Anatomy of 'Rururban Community' was published, on the basis of scope ,it explains the structural features of city and rural life. It also describes changing patterns of these societies after independence.7-In 1965 his book on' Religious Consciousness' was published ,which explains about main bases of culture like Religious Consciousness ,justice ,knowledge ,freedom of expression, tolerance etc. He also has given the description of universal, rebirth, main Gods and Goddesses, piousness of religious places etc.8-In his book Social Tension in India he has explained the social problems arisen by social tension (after Indian independence).He had observed it minutely and presented its concerned data.His all publications are related with Indian cultural features and solidarity of cultural elements. He has used the term of Acculturation , which is related to give and take of cultural elements. He has accepted supremacy of Brahmins in reference of social value system and social institutions. he has admitted that in the past such institutions have achieved great successes in system of work performances ,but at present these are not so useful.In 1952 he has established Indian Sociological Society which is so important that till today it organizes annual seminars every year. The professional utility of the sociology has been increased by this society. In 1954 an half yearly research journal named 'Sociological Bulletin 'has been started by this society. This is reason why some call him father of sociology in India.Caste System In India-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published, which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. He interpreted in detail about the various aspects of Caste System in India. Later on his revised edition describes the caste class and occupation of Indian community. He has also explained the changing patterns of caste system and he expressed his view that with the development of scientific education, industrialization, and urbanization, the disparity among caste system would be decreased. Later on he realized that as the caste based political and social organization are developing. it is difficult to eliminate caste system by existing laws.Dr Ghurye was knowledgeable thinker who had good knowledge of Indology and had have studied various books of religions in Sanskrit. On the basis of his these books, he concluded that the all caste system is deliberate attempt of Brahmins to show their supremacy in Indian society. First this caste system originated at shore of river Ganges and Jamuna in north Indian society, later on it speeded at entire Indian society.Features of Caste System of India -According to Dr Ghurye following are the features of caste system:1-Segmental Division-There are so many division and sub divisions of caste system. The members of every division have fixed status and roles and works .According to statuses they have to perform their roles. There is moral ethics ,obligation and justification value behind these roles. All these roles are different in nature from other roles of other people of other division.2-Hierarchy-There is Hierarchy of status and roles. In other words we can say there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached to them to show the higher or lower status of people in a particular division .As already explained the supremacy of Brahamins are at top place ,the second and the third place is given to Khatris and Vaishios and untouchable like other service providers were placed at the fourth place. On the basis of piousness and supremacy there is Hierarchy of lower and upper classes .It is moral duty of the people to give maximum respect to Brahmins.3-Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse. They have some rules been imposed to all caste people. Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse is still prevails in Indian societies. There are two types of cooked food called Kachha(raw or boiled ) and pakka(ripe or fried ) food. Upper caste people can not have kachha food touched by lower castes people. They even can not have water touched by these lower caste people. In emergency they can accept Pakka food of lower castes excluding untouchables. During birth, death and marriages, they invite to their caste people only. The untouchables are kept aside in every matter. There is provision of caste marriages.4-Civil and Religious Disabilities and privileges. There are special powers and rights to people of higher castes while many disabilities have been imposed to untouchables in areas of public utility places. The untouchable can not take water from public wells. They are not allowed to get entry in religious temples or any other social and educational places.5-Restrictions regarding Occupation. The occupations have been fixed by heredity, Generally they have been not allowed to change their traditional occupations .All caste people maintain their supremacy and secrecy in their jobs and not allowed outer group to join his occupation. The upper castes people like Brahmins are free to opt the study of religious books ,while this can not be done by other classes. The lower natured job's people like sweeping bathrooms, washing clothes, making iron things have been kept in untouchable categories. Due to heavy population in lower category they again have been divided in further categories.6-Restriction regarding Marriages. Indian caste system is based on endogamy .In other words we can say it occurred marriage restriction .people can marry within caste only not out of caste. To disobey these marriage rules is not treated only as crime but it is treated sin also. The caste Panchayat take full care of it, if any person disobeyed it ,he has been severally punished by caste Panchayats.Relationship between Caste and Kinship: By this caste system ,every caste has various hereditarily clan groups .Every caste has been divided in various such blood relative groups called clans. The same caste people with different clan are called kinships groups. The kinship is endogamy group, where people take care that no body can marry a person of own clan people. As all clan members are same blood relatives so treated as brothers and sisters and they can not marry with other. The moral ethics say that the marriage among such brothers and sisters are not appropriate.Ghurye says that this restriction has made organization of caste system more strong. Moreover there is wider scope of marriage for all members. The marriages among blood relatives is not considered appropriate from genetic point of view also. But due to industrialization and urbanization, and spread of education the rules of kinship and marriages are being loosened.Caste and Politics-According to Ghurye the earlier caste system and divisions of castes were based on racial discriminations. The two main races Indo Aryan and Drawirns were settled over here. When Aryan defeated Drawirns and captured the Indian culture ,they treated Drawirns as their subordinators. Gradually they treated them as untouchables. Up till medieval age this system of caste was working in Indian structure.Muslim rulers did not show any interest to break down the rules of this Hindu caste system. They were in mood to defeat these small caste based rulers and make them merged in to their kingdom. During British rule three significant changes took place in this system. A- Equal laws for all Indians castes,B-Industrial developments provided new opportunities of jobs to all casts C-A developed administrative machinery provided security to all people.This caste system was proved to be beneficial for British people and they did not try to abolish it. Many British Sociologist and anthropologists expressed their views on exploitation of lowers caste people. Their expression gave resentfulness to lower class people. This feeling of separation was recognized by local administration and many such caste trusts were given importance. Indirectly this policy of British rule encouraged to castism. This feeling of separation was hindrance in the development of nationality.After independence Ghurye noticed that selfish attitude of various political parties, have increased the separation of all castes. Various attracting programs were shown to public by political parties .This was psychological exploitation of deprived in democratic society. Ghurye was not in favor of giving reservation to Scheduled castes people for unlimited time .Rather he was in favor in providing more opportunities in field of economic and education.Caste and Class- Ghurye's book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. In his book Ghurye described how old caste system is loosening its roots. The changing patterns of castes are occurred due to development of education and training ,disorganization of joint family system , industrialization and introduction of new laws. The other factors responsible for loose caste system are, changing attitude of equality to all and lesser influence of caste Panchayats.Ghurye states that what other factors are responsible which are encouraging to features of separation of class than features of caste. Now days class consciousness is more active than caste consciousness. Because formation of classes are based on equality. Today caste system is only important up to some extent which gives them strong political support so that they can increase their political power. Like classes there is an openness of castes also occurred .In world of materialistic there is less role of caste. while class has more importance which is based on economic and political powers.Ghurye has agreed with the view of Durkheim that in process of division of labor there is equal role of every labor. The division of labor is based on class structure. Ghurye was not agreed with the view of Karl Marx that there are always two classes in society .Actually there many classes in society like capitalist ,middle class ,lower class, farmers class etc. Only ownership of means of production is not factor to decide class as Karl Marx expresses his view. The political power ,property, education and individual efficiency counts the status.Views of Ghurye on Race-before getting the views of Ghurye it is important to understand the concept of race. The question of human races is related to the origin of modern human beings. Most anthropologists today reject the idea that the human population can be divided into biologically defined races. Physical features of modern human beings change gradually from one region to another, making it difficult to draw a dividing line between them. However, anthropologists have observed that groups of people who have lived in certain parts of the world for many thousands of years tend to differ in appearance from groups in other parts of the world. These differences are probably mutations and adaptations to local environments. For example, people whose ancestors have lived for generations in sunny climates tend to have dark skin. Dark pigment helps protect the skin from sunburn and reduces the risk of skin cancer.In words of Merrill, "race is biological term referring to certain physical similarities among large group of persons that are transmitted through the mechanism of heredity."(Society and Culture. P 253).The term race once commonly used in physical anthropology to denote a division of humankind possessing traits that are transmissible by descent and sufficient to characterize it as a distinct human type On the basis of physical traits .there are three major groups of races known Caucasoid(white skinned mostly settled in USA,UK), Mongoloid (Yellow skinned mostly settled in India and China)and Negroid(Black skinned mostly settled in USA,south Africa )According to Green, "A race is a large, biological ,human groping, with a number of distinctive inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range."Education , language ,religion etc are man made cultural concepts while race based physical traits are related with biological concepts.According to Biesanz"a race is a large group of people distinguished by inherited physical differences." According to kroeber "A race is a valid biological concept.It is group divided by heredity, a breed or genetic strain or subspecies."Today the term has little scientific standing, as older methods of differentiation, including hair form and body measurement, have given way to the comparative analysis of DNA and gene frequencies relating to such factors as blood typing, the excretion of amino acids, and inherited enzyme deficiencies. Because all human populations today are extremely similar genetically, most researchers have abandoned the concept of race for the concept of the cline, a graded series of differences occurring along a line of environmental or geographical transition. This reflects the recognition that human populations have always been in a state of change, with genes constantly flowing from one gene pool to another, only by physical or ecological boundaries. While relative isolation does preserve genetic differences and allow populations to maximally adapt to climatic and disease factors over long periods of time.The important features which can be distinguished from one racial group to another are blood group. cephalic index, nasal index, stature, skin color ,hair texture, eye pattern and color, lips formation, etc. On the basis of these traits above three categories of Caucasoid,Mongoloid and Negroid have been classified.In other countries this classification is very clear while in India due to crossing and mixing ,this can not be done easily. In 1931 Dr B.S.Guha was first thinker who concluded that on the basis of such traits there is an oldest race Negarito in India which is branch of Negroid .Herbert Risley was second anthropologist who has mentioned seven types of races of India on the basis of physical traits.1-Turko- Iranian-this race is found in population of Baluchistan and north western part of Indian population.2-Indo -Aryan-this is part of Caucasoid race .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan.3-Mangoloid-The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race.4-Dravidian-This is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in Hyderabad, Chennai, Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges .these people have broad nose.5-Aryo- Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Indo -Aryan and Dravidian people .This race has long sizes head and found in Utter Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.6- Mongoloid-Dravidian- This is combination and crossings of Mongoloid-Dravidian .They have broad head and wider nose. These people are found in lower parts of Bengal and Orisa.7-Seytho-Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Seython and -Dravidian. In western part of India they have strong hold. They have broad head and thin nose.Views of Ghurye on Race-he has not approved the views of Risley and Guha. In History of Civilization and Caste and Class in India he has expressed his view on Ethnic groups.He states that as in caste system there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached, same way races also have same feeling of superiority and inferiority. Some feel high themselves in regard of intelligence and cultural heritage and believed that their blood is more pure than others. The Caucasoid race people thinks themselves superior to Mongoloid and Negroid .The people of Caucasoid race keep distance to Negroid to maintain purity of blood.Dr Ghurye did not agreed with the views of other anthropologists and said that there is no such scientific measurement to see the people on basis of their traits.According to Dr Ghurye following six groups are of racial distribution of Hindu population:1- Indo -Aryan- this is part of Caucasoidrace .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan and joint province (U.P, M.P, Haryana and Delhi). Simultaneously lower castes of joint province have some features of Pre-Dravidian and Munda types traits.2- Pre-DravidianThis is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in forests of Hyderabad, Chennai, and hilly areas of central India / Madhya Pradesh, and forests of Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges. these people have broad nose, long face and black or brown skin color.3- The Dravidian-long head, medium are main symptoms of this group. The maximum people settles in Malayalam and Tamil areas. Many have matriarchal family system. The nayar ,tiyan and Valhalla are some representative races.4- The Western type-Ghurye is not agreed with Risle's Mongoloid-Dravidian and indoDravidian combinations. According to him some people of Western coast and Maharashtra are nearer to western type.There is no sign of mongoloid traits in them.5- -The Munda type -In Jharkhand's chhotanagpur are we see such people.As far as population of Bihar is concerned the combination of Indo -Aryan, Pre-Dravidian and Munda people are found in this population6-Mongoloid The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race. Ghurye is agreed with this classification of Risley.On the basis of racial differentiation Ghurye made classification of Indian caste system. Though he was not agreed with entire views of Risely but at some extent he has similarities in views of regarding origin of a caste system. The basic concept of purity of blood is taken from racial classifications.Ghurye admitted that before coming to India, Indo Aryan group were pretty impressed by the culture of Romanian. In elite class of Roman culture , there was system of slaves for lower classes. The Aryans have adopted the same trend, when they defeated black skinned Dravidian, in various conflicts. The Dravidian were treated like slaves , servants and untouchables. The feeling of piousness and impiousness made Brahmins high ranked people. For this they propagated their superiority .Ghurye also has adopted rules of social distance ,(taken from racial discrimination,) among the various castes. On the basis of occupation Indo Aryans were divided in to four categories named Brahmins, Shatriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The most influential category named Brahmins had special powers and rights of hypergamy(hypergamy.a Hindu custom which compels a woman to marry into a caste of equal or superior rank or Brahmins could have many marriages with either caste's girls ) The best system was marriage was to have the marriage within own castes. The people who got brides of other castes , their children were placed at lower status .Thus the rules of social contact and rules of feeding have been developed by crossing and mixing of various castes .Due to hypergamy new castes had originated and children of such marriages were being treated as impious one. They were kept away from many social , economic and religious rights.Ultimately Ghurye concluded that "Caste in India is a Brahmanic child of Indo Aryan culture,craded in the land of the Gangas and Jamuna and thence transferred to other parts of the country."Ghurye's classification of Hindu caste system of India was basically based on racial discrimination .The same hierarchy of races was adopted by him and the rules of social distance was also followed by him. The feeling of Superiority and inferiority among various castes has been also attached with it .No geographical area of division is perfect base of caste system so this was not adopted in general. Therefore Ghurye has presented integrated approach of caste and race classifications.guste Comte-(1898-1857)He is considered as father of sociology. Comte was born at Montpellier, in France. He founded the philosophy of positivism, and originated a concept of social science known as sociology.Comte sought to discover the laws that he believed governed the evolution of the mind. In his six-volume work, The Course of Positive Philosophy (1830-1842), he framed his "law of the three states." This law advanced the idea that people try to understand phenomena in three ways. Comte believed that people first seek a theological (supernatural) explanation; then a metaphysical (abstract) explanation; and finally a positive explanation. The positive explanation is derived from an objective examination of the phenomena. Comte believed that students should concern themselves only with phenomena that have an objective, "positive," existence. This belief forms a basis of positivism. He also has given importance to "social static and social Mobility" and cleared that changes of society can be understood on these basis. His contribution in field of Social reconstruction is related to social welfare of human beings ,which should be studied with social methods.Comte regarded all social thought as an interrelated whole, the laws of which can be found by assembling what he considered the facts. His ideas have influenced students of historical and social theory, and of criminology, and such authors as Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill, who were seeking a "science of society."Spencer, Herbert(1820-1903), was a British philosopher. He attempted to work out a comprehensive philosophy based on the scientific discoveries of his day. Spencer was greatly influenced by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. He applied his own and Darwin's fundamental law--the idea of evolution (gradual development)--to biology, psychology, sociology, and other fields. Spencer's major works include First Principles (1862) and Principles of Ethics (1879-1893).In his work, Spencer traced the development of life from its lowest recognizable form up to human beings. He believed that the great law of nature is the constant action of forces which tend to change all forms from the simple to the complex. He explained that the mind of human beings has developed in this way, advancing from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the reasoning processes of human beings. According to him it(scope of sociology )should study family, religion social control, division of labor, politics etc.Marx, Karl(1818-1883), was a German philosopher, social scientist, and professional revolutionary. Few writers have had such a great and lasting influence on the world. The main reason of social change is ,change in economic relationship. Due to clashing interests of both ,there is always clashing relationship between owner and labor,which brings change in society.In sociology, Marx's work is also regarded with increasing respect. Without his contributions, sociology would not have developed into what it is today. Marx wrote on social classes, on the relationship between the economy and the state, and on the principles that underlie a political or economic system.Many people still turn to Marx for an explanation of current social, economic, and political evils. But most of them are unlikely to agree with his view of the ease and speed with which the working class will overthrow the class system and set up a Communist classless society.Emile Durkheim(1858-1917), was a French sociologist. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Durkheim disagreed with most social theorists of the late 1800's because they thought that individual psychology was the basis of sociology. Durkheim regarded sociology as the study of the society that surrounds and influences the individual. Durkheim explained his theories in his book The Rules of Sociological Method (1895). He says there is relationship between moral values and religious beliefs, which establishes unity in society.In The Division of Labour (1893), Durkheim developed the theory that societies are bound together by two sources of unity. He called these sources mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to similarities that many people in the society share, such as values and religious beliefs. Organic solidarity results from the division of labour into specialized jobs. Durkheim believed that the division of labour makes people depend on one another and thus helps create unity in a society. Durkheim studied thousands of cases of suicide to demonstrate his theory that a person commits suicide because of the influence of society. He explained this theory in Suicide (1897).Max Weber- (1864-1920), Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Heidelberg. Other important workby Weber is Essays in Sociology and The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Weber considered bureaucracy to be the most important feature of modern society. Bureaucracy is a method of organization based on specialization of duties, action according to rules, and a stable order of authority. Weber also developed an ideal type method for studying society. This method studies the basic elements of social institutions and how these elements relate to one another .According to him scope of sociology is study and interpretation of social actions.A.R Desai was born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad in Gujarat and died in 1994 at Baroda. He consistently advocated and applied dialectical-historical model in his sociological studies. He closely studied the works of Marx and Engels and the writings of Trotsky. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field research. He rejects any interpretations of tradition with reference to religion, rituals and festivities. It is essentially a secular phenomenon. He finds it in family, village and other social institutions. He also does not find the origin of tradition in western culture. He considers that the emerging contradictions in the Indian process of social transformation arise mainly from the growing nexus among the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty-bourgeoisie and a state apparatus all drawn from similar social rootsProfessor Desai did his PhD under the guidance of Dr Ghurye in 1945.From very beginning he had interest in study of deprived classes of India. Right from days of 1951 he started to work of teaching in Bombay university, where he appointed as reader of Sociology. In 1959,when Dr Ghurye had retired ,he was appointed as head of department of sociology in same place. Due to interest in study of deprived classes, he was strong supporter of views of Karl Marx. He was founder member of Indian Sociological Society. In 1964 he read his important research paper on Rural Problems in third conference of sociology . After this paper he earned his more name and fame in field of Sociology.Dr Desai took part in France Rural Conference; Along with study and teaching he had interest in politics also. He has been member of Indian Communist Party. In 1953 he got membership of Trotskyism revolutionary socialism party. In 1994 he expired which was great loss in field of Sociology. His some books are very important which are as follow-In 1948 he wrote his first book named "Social Background of Indian Nationalism" which was based on interpretation of Dialectical Materialism of Karl Marx. The book is all about beginning and development of Indian national movement. He has used historical method in sociological study of phenomenon.The second important book of Desai is Rural Sociology in India. This book is edited by Desai and various writers have contributed their important views in The editing of the book is very systematical and logical, this is very useful book for students of sociology.His book Rural India in Transition is written on about government's policies and changing patterns of rural Structure. He has specially mentioned the land reforms, rural panchayats, Bhudan (Land donation)consequence of cooperative movements etc in this book. He also included other topics like up to what extent the mixed economy and individual ownership on land is being successful in India.Recent Trends in Indian Nationalism is his another important book. This is ever first book written on 'Indian nationalism' before independence. He also has explained conditions and futures of' Indian nationalism' after independence and thrown light on factors of hindrance in development of 'Indian nationalism'. He took help of sociological approach for studying change of social and political phenomenon.India's Path of Development : A Marxist Approach,this is also important book written by Desai. In this book he describes that how and up to what extent the implementation of the Government of India's development programs and life standard and economy of Indian people is influenced by Marxist Approach . He disagrees that maximum Government of India's development programs to solve the public problems are appropriate. He criticized the bureaucracy system of government.Desai's book on State and Society: Essays in India is also has great importance. He has described in this book about the relationship of society and state ,nature and origin of state ,development of state in India, functions and features of state, interpretation of monarchy system and ideal system etc. He also has described that how constitutionally a welfare state can fulfill the needs of deprived classes. He has opinion that the Government of India's development programs is influenced by policies of British administration and system of capitalism. Basically this book is also influenced by views of Karl Marx.
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there is great contribution of various thinkers at global level. few among them are as follow.G. S. Ghurye : Ghurye caste and RaceProfessor Govind. Sadashive Ghurye first Indian sociologist who has a great role in contributing sociological views ,not only in Indian Sociology but at global level he would have been remembered till the existence of sociology. Born on 12th December ,1893 at western shore of small Malwan town, had started his primary education along with study of Sanskrit. He did his matriculation from Junagarh in Gujarat ,graduation with first class from Bombay University in 1916 and post graduation in Sanskrit in 1918,and P.G in English in1920.After that he went to England for further study of Sociology.He was student of famous sociologist L.T. Hob house in England. Here he met with famous anthropologist A.C Haddon and Rivers who were undertaking their studies on various tribes and their cultures. As he was influenced by these thinkers so he wrote his articles on castes and races. In 1923 he presented his great research work on 'Caste and Race in India,' which was awarded with PhD degree of famous Cambridge university.. On his return from Cambridge, where he wrote his doctoral dissertation under W.H.R. Rivers and later A.C. Haddon, Ghurye succeeded Sir Patric Geddes as Head of Department of Sociology in the University of Bombay in 1934. He continued to head the Department until his retirement in 1959. After retirement, he was designated the first Emeritus Professor in the University of Bombay. On 28th December 1983, he took his last breathin the age of 90 years .Ghurye's contribution to the development of sociology and Anthropology in India is enormous and multi-faceted. A prolific writer, Ghurye wrote 32 books and scores of papers, which cover such wide-ranging themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, ascetic traditions, tribal life, demography, architecture and literature.Ghurye played a key role in the professionalism of sociology by founding the Indian Sociological Society and its journal Sociological Bulletin. In addition, he encouraged and trained a large number of talented students who, in turn, advanced the frontiers of sociological and anthropological research in the country. With his own voluminous output and through the researches of his able students Ghurye embarked on an ambitious project of mapping out the ethnographic landscape of India Professor.Life sketch And works of G. S. Ghurye- A prolific writer, he wrote 32 books and many research papers, which cover such topics themes as kinship and marriage, urbanization, customary traditions, tribal life, racial life, demography, architecture, literature and Sanskrit.The famous among them few are as follow:1-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc.2- in 1943 he published his book 'Scheduled tribes 'which says about classification of tribes and Government policies for the same.3-In 1947 his book on "Culture and Society" was published ,which has description of Indian social ,art ,costumes ,architecture, literature and demography.4-In 1953 his famous book on 'Indian Sadhus'was published which describes Indian history of these saints and hermits and religious structure of India.5-In 1962 his book 'Cities and Civilization' was published which describes history of city life of various 14 countries in last 60 years and presents socio historical description of Bombay.6-In 1963 his book 'Anatomy of 'Rururban Community' was published, on the basis of scope ,it explains the structural features of city and rural life. It also describes changing patterns of these societies after independence.7-In 1965 his book on' Religious Consciousness' was published ,which explains about main bases of culture like Religious Consciousness ,justice ,knowledge ,freedom of expression, tolerance etc. He also has given the description of universal, rebirth, main Gods and Goddesses, piousness of religious places etc.8-In his book Social Tension in India he has explained the social problems arisen by social tension (after Indian independence).He had observed it minutely and presented its concerned data.His all publications are related with Indian cultural features and solidarity of cultural elements. He has used the term of Acculturation , which is related to give and take of cultural elements. He has accepted supremacy of Brahmins in reference of social value system and social institutions. he has admitted that in the past such institutions have achieved great successes in system of work performances ,but at present these are not so useful.In 1952 he has established Indian Sociological Society which is so important that till today it organizes annual seminars every year. The professional utility of the sociology has been increased by this society. In 1954 an half yearly research journal named 'Sociological Bulletin 'has been started by this society. This is reason why some call him father of sociology in India.Caste System In India-In 1932 his book Caste and Race was published, which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. He interpreted in detail about the various aspects of caste system in India. Later on his revised edition describes the caste class and occupation of Indian community. He has also explained the changing patterns of caste system and he expressed his view that with the development of scientific education, industrialization, and urbanization, the disparity among caste system would be decreased. Later on he realized that as the caste based political and social organization are developing. it is difficult to eliminate caste system by existing laws.Dr Ghurye was knowledgeable thinker who had good knowledge of Indology and had have studied various books of religions in Sanskrit. On the basis of his these books, he concluded that the all caste system is deliberate attempt of Brahmins to show their supremacy in Indian society. First this caste system originated at shore of river Ganges and Jamuna in north Indian society, later on it speeded at entire Indian society.Features of Caste System of India -According to Dr Ghurye following are the features of caste system:1-Segmental Division-There are so many division and sub divisions of caste system. The members of every division have fixed status and roles and works .According to statuses they have to perform their roles. There is moral ethics ,obligation and justification value behind these roles. All these roles are different in nature from other roles of other people of other division.2-Hierarchy-There is Hierarchy of status and roles. In other words we can say there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached to them to show the higher or lower status of people in a particular division .As already explained the supremacy of Brahamins are at top place ,the second and the third place is given to Khatris and Vaishios and untouchable like other service providers were placed at the fourth place. On the basis of piousness and supremacy there is Hierarchy of lower and upper classes .It is moral duty of the people to give maximum respect to Brahmins.3-Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse. They have some rules been imposed to all caste people. Restriction on Feeding and Social Intercourse is still prevails in Indian societies. There are two types of cooked food called Kachha(raw or boiled ) and pakka(ripe or fried ) food. Upper caste people can not have kachha food touched by lower castes people. They even can not have water touched by these lower caste people. In emergency they can accept Pakka food of lower castes excluding untouchables. During birth, death and marriages, they invite to their caste people only. The untouchables are kept aside in every matter. There is provision of caste marriages.4-Civil and Religious Disabilities and privileges. There are special powers and rights to people of higher castes while many disabilities have been imposed to untouchables in areas of public utility places. The untouchable can not take water from public wells. They are not allowed to get entry in religious temples or any other social and educational places.5-Restrictions regarding Occupation. The occupations have been fixed by heredity, Generally they have been not allowed to change their traditional occupations .All caste people maintain their supremacy and secrecy in their jobs and not allowed outer group to join his occupation. The upper castes people like Brahmins are free to opt the study of religious books ,while this can not be done by other classes. The lower natured job's people like sweeping bathrooms, washing clothes, making iron things have been kept in untouchable categories. Due to heavy population in lower category they again have been divided in further categories.6-Restriction regarding Marriages. Indian caste system is based on endogamy .In other words we can say it occurred marriage restriction .people can marry within caste only not out of caste. To disobey these marriage rules is not treated only as crime but it is treated sin also. The caste Panchayat take full care of it, if any person disobeyed it ,he has been severally punished by caste Panchayats.Relationship between Caste and Kinship: By this caste system ,every caste has various hereditarily clan groups .Every caste has been divided in various such blood relative groups called clans. The same caste people with different clan are called kinships groups. The kinship is endogamy group, where people take care that no body can marry a person of own clan people. As all clan members are same blood relatives so treated as brothers and sisters and they can not marry with other. The moral ethics say that the marriage among such brothers and sisters are not appropriate.Ghurye says that this restriction has made organization of caste system more strong. Moreover there is wider scope of marriage for all members. The marriages among blood relatives is not considered appropriate from genetic point of view also. But due to industrialization and urbanization, and spread of education the rules of kinship and marriages are being loosened.Caste and Politics-According to Ghurye the earlier caste system and divisions of castes were based on racial discriminations. The two main races Indo Aryan and Drawirns were settled over here. When Aryan defeated Drawirns and captured the Indian culture ,they treated Drawirns as their subordinators. Gradually they treated them as untouchables. Up till medieval age this system of caste was working in Indian structure.Muslim rulers did not show any interest to break down the rules of this Hindu caste system. They were in mood to defeat these small caste based rulers and make them merged in to their kingdom. During British rule three significant changes took place in this system. A- Equal laws for all Indians castes,B-Industrial developments provided new opportunities of jobs to all casts C-A developed administrative machinery provided security to all people.This caste system was proved to be beneficial for British people and they did not try to abolish it. Many British Sociologist and anthropologists expressed their views on exploitation of lowers caste people. Their expression gave resentfulness to lower class people. This feeling of separation was recognized by local administration and many such caste trusts were given importance. Indirectly this policy of British rule encouraged to castism. This feeling of separation was hindrance in the development of nationality.After independence Ghurye noticed that selfish attitude of various political parties, have increased the separation of all castes. Various attracting programs were shown to public by political parties .This was psychological exploitation of deprived in democratic society. Ghurye was not in favor of giving reservation to Scheduled castes people for unlimited time .Rather he was in favor in providing more opportunities in field of economic and education.Caste and Class- Ghurye's book Caste and Race was published ,which explains caste distribution of western Asia, China, Japan, Rome along with Indian caste classification .Later on ,in its amended edition ,he included creation of sub castes, Scheduled castes, caste and politics etc. In his book Ghurye described how old caste system is loosening its roots. The changing patterns of castes are occurred due to development of education and training ,disorganization of joint family system , industrialization and introduction of new laws. The other factors responsible for loose caste system are, changing attitude of equality to all and lesser influence of caste Panchayats.Ghurye states that what other factors are responsible which are encouraging to features of separation of class than features of caste. Now days class consciousness is more active than caste consciousness. Because formation of classes are based on equality. Today caste system is only important up to some extent which gives them strong political support so that they can increase their political power. Like classes there is an openness of castes also occurred .In world of materialistic there is less role of caste. while class has more importance which is based on economic and political powers.Ghurye has agreed with the view of Durkheim that in process of division of labor there is equal role of every labor. The division of labor is based on class structure. Ghurye was not agreed with the view of Karl Marx that there are always two classes in society .Actually there many classes in society like capitalist ,middle class ,lower class, farmers class etc. Only ownership of means of production is not factor to decide class as Karl Marx expresses his view. The political power ,property, education and individual efficiency counts the status.Views of Ghurye on Race-before getting the views of Ghurye it is important to understand the concept of race. The question of human races is related to the origin of modern human beings. Most anthropologists today reject the idea that the human population can be divided into biologically defined races. Physical features of modern human beings change gradually from one region to another, making it difficult to draw a dividing line between them. However, anthropologists have observed that groups of people who have lived in certain parts of the world for many thousands of years tend to differ in appearance from groups in other parts of the world. These differences are probably mutations and adaptations to local environments. For example, people whose ancestors have lived for generations in sunny climates tend to have dark skin. Dark pigment helps protect the skin from sunburn and reduces the risk of skin cancer.In words of Merrill, "race is biological term referring to certain physical similarities among large group of persons that are transmitted through the mechanism of heredity."(Society and Culture. P 253).The term race once commonly used in physical anthropology to denote a division of humankind possessing traits that are transmissible by descent and sufficient to characterize it as a distinct human type On the basis of physical traits .there are three major groups of races known Caucasoid(white skinned mostly settled in USA,UK), Mongoloid (Yellow skinned mostly settled in India and China)and Negroid(Black skinned mostly settled in USA,south Africa )According to Green, "A race is a large, biological ,human groping, with a number of distinctive inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range."Education , language ,religion etc are man made cultural concepts while race based physical traits are related with biological concepts.According to Biesanz"a race is a large group of people distinguished by inherited physical differences." According to kroeber "A race is a valid biological concept.It is group divided by heredity, a breed or genetic strain or subspecies."Today the term has little scientific standing, as older methods of differentiation, including hair form and body measurement, have given way to the comparative analysis of DNA and gene frequencies relating to such factors as blood typing, the excretion of amino acids, and inherited enzyme deficiencies. Because all human populations today are extremely similar genetically, most researchers have abandoned the concept of race for the concept of the cline, a graded series of differences occurring along a line of environmental or geographical transition. This reflects the recognition that human populations have always been in a state of change, with genes constantly flowing from one gene pool to another, only by physical or ecological boundaries. While relative isolation does preserve genetic differences and allow populations to maximally adapt to climatic and disease factors over long periods of time.The important features which can be distinguished from one racial group to another are blood group. cephalic index, nasal index, stature, skin color ,hair texture, eye pattern and color, lips formation, etc. On the basis of these traits above three categories of Caucasoid,Mongoloid and Negroid have been classified.In other countries this classification is very clear while in India due to crossing and mixing ,this can not be done easily. In 1931 Dr B.S.Guha was first thinker who concluded that on the basis of such traits there is an oldest race Negarito in India which is branch of Negroid .Herbert Risley was second anthropologist who has mentioned seven types of races of India on the basis of physical traits.1-Turko- Iranian-this race is found in population of Baluchistan and north western part of Indian population.2-Indo -Aryan-this is part of Caucasoid race .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan.3-Mangoloid-The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race.4-Dravidian-This is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in Hyderabad, Chennai, Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges .these people have broad nose.5-Aryo- Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Indo -Aryan and Dravidian people .This race has long sizes head and found in Utter Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.6- Mongoloid-Dravidian- This is combination and crossings of Mongoloid-Dravidian .They have broad head and wider nose. These people are found in lower parts of Bengal and Orisa.7-Seytho-Dravidian-This is combination and crossings of Seython and -Dravidian. In western part of India they have strong hold. They have broad head and thin nose.Views of Ghurye on Race-he has not approved the views of Risley and Guha. In History of Civilization and Caste and Class in India he has expressed his view on Ethnic groups.He states that as in caste system there is feeling of superiority and inferiority is attached, same way races also have same feeling of superiority and inferiority. Some feel high themselves in regard of intelligence and cultural heritage and believed that their blood is more pure than others. The Caucasoid race people thinks themselves superior to Mongoloid and Negroid .The people of Caucasoid race keep distance to Negroid to maintain purity of blood.Dr Ghurye did not agreed with the views of other anthropologists and said that there is no such scientific measurement to see the people on basis of their traits.According to Dr Ghurye following six groups are of racial distribution of Hindu population:1- Indo -Aryan- this is part of Caucasoidrace .these people are found in Kashmir ,Punjab, and Rajasthan and joint province (U.P, M.P, Haryana and Delhi). Simultaneously lower castes of joint province have some features of Pre-Dravidian and Munda types traits.2- Pre-DravidianThis is sub race of Dravidian .This is oldest racial group of India. The people of this race reside in forests of Hyderabad, Chennai, and hilly areas of central India / Madhya Pradesh, and forests of Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand) and some at the boundaries of Ganges. these people have broad nose, long face and black or brown skin color.3- The Dravidian-long head, medium are main symptoms of this group. The maximum people settles in Malayalam and Tamil areas. Many have matriarchal family system. The nayar ,tiyan and Valhalla are some representative races.4- The Western type-Ghurye is not agreed with Risle's Mongoloid-Dravidian and indoDravidian combinations. According to him some people of Western coast and Maharashtra are nearer to western type.There is no sign of mongoloid traits in them.5- -The Munda type -In Jharkhand's chhotanagpur are we see such people.As far as population of Bihar is concerned the combination of Indo -Aryan, Pre-Dravidian and Munda people are found in this population6-Mongoloid The maximum people of this race are found in areas of Himalayas like Nepal, Assam, and Burma (Myanmar) . Broad head, average height ,round face, yellow skin, small and flat nose, and small eyes are some common traits of this race. Ghurye is agreed with this classification of Risley.On the basis of racial differentiation Ghurye made classification of Indian caste system. Though he was not agreed with entire views of Risely but at some extent he has similarities in views of regarding origin of a caste system. The basic concept of purity of blood is taken from racial classifications.Ghurye admitted that before coming to India, Indo Aryan group were pretty impressed by the culture of Romanian. In elite class of Roman culture , there was system of slaves for lower classes. The Aryans have adopted the same trend, when they defeated black skinned Dravidian, in various conflicts. The Dravidian were treated like slaves , servants and untouchables. The feeling of piousness and impiousness made Brahmins high ranked people. For this they propagated their superiority .Ghurye also has adopted rules of social distance ,(taken from racial discrimination,) among the various castes. On the basis of occupation Indo Aryans were divided in to four categories named Brahmins, Shatriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The most influential category named Brahmins had special powers and rights of hypergamy(hypergamy.a Hindu custom which compels a woman to marry into a caste of equal or superior rank or Brahmins could have many marriages with either caste's girls ) The best system was marriage was to have the marriage within own castes. The people who got brides of other castes , their children were placed at lower status .Thus the rules of social contact and rules of feeding have been developed by crossing and mixing of various castes .Due to hypergamy new castes had originated and children of such marriages were being treated as impious one. They were kept away from many social , economic and religious rights.Ultimately Ghurye concluded that "Caste in India is a Brahmanic child of Indo Aryan culture,craded in the land of the Gangas and Jamuna and thence transferred to other parts of the country."Ghurye's classification of Hindu caste system of India was basically based on racial discrimination .The same hierarchy of races was adopted by him and the rules of social distance was also followed by him. The feeling of Superiority and inferiority among various castes has been also attached with it .No geographical area of division is perfect base of caste system so this was not adopted in general. Therefore Ghurye has presented integrated approach of caste and race classifications.guste Comte-(1898-1857)He is considered as father of sociology. Comte was born at Montpellier, in France. He founded the philosophy of positivism, and originated a concept of social science known as sociology.Comte sought to discover the laws that he believed governed the evolution of the mind. In his six-volume work, The Course of Positive Philosophy (1830-1842), he framed his "law of the three states." This law advanced the idea that people try to understand phenomena in three ways. Comte believed that people first seek a theological (supernatural) explanation; then a metaphysical (abstract) explanation; and finally a positive explanation. The positive explanation is derived from an objective examination of the phenomena. Comte believed that students should concern themselves only with phenomena that have an objective, "positive," existence. This belief forms a basis of positivism. He also has given importance to "social static and social Mobility" and cleared that changes of society can be understood on these basis. His contribution in field of Social reconstruction is related to social welfare of human beings ,which should be studied with social methods.Comte regarded all social thought as an interrelated whole, the laws of which can be found by assembling what he considered the facts. His ideas have influenced students of historical and social theory, and of criminology, and such authors as Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill, who were seeking a "science of society."Spencer, Herbert(1820-1903), was a British philosopher. He attempted to work out a comprehensive philosophy based on the scientific discoveries of his day. Spencer was greatly influenced by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. He applied his own and Darwin's fundamental law--the idea of evolution (gradual development)--to biology, psychology, sociology, and other fields. Spencer's major works include First Principles (1862) and Principles of Ethics (1879-1893).In his work, Spencer traced the development of life from its lowest recognizable form up to human beings. He believed that the great law of nature is the constant action of forces which tend to change all forms from the simple to the complex. He explained that the mind of human beings has developed in this way, advancing from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the reasoning processes of human beings. According to him it(scope of sociology )should study family, religion social control, division of labor, politics etc.Marx, Karl(1818-1883), was a German philosopher, social scientist, and professional revolutionary. Few writers have had such a great and lasting influence on the world. The main reason of social change is ,change in economic relationship. Due to clashing interests of both ,there is always clashing relationship between owner and labor,which brings change in society.In sociology, Marx's work is also regarded with increasing respect. Without his contributions, sociology would not have developed into what it is today. Marx wrote on social classes, on the relationship between the economy and the state, and on the principles that underlie a political or economic system.Many people still turn to Marx for an explanation of current social, economic, and political evils. But most of them are unlikely to agree with his view of the ease and speed with which the working class will overthrow the class system and set up a Communist classless society.Emile Durkheim(1858-1917), was a French sociologist. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Durkheim disagreed with most social theorists of the late 1800's because they thought that individual psychology was the basis of sociology. Durkheim regarded sociology as the study of the society that surrounds and influences the individual. Durkheim explained his theories in his book The Rules of Sociological Method (1895). He says there is relationship between moral values and religious beliefs, which establishes unity in society.In The Division of Labour (1893), Durkheim developed the theory that societies are bound together by two sources of unity. He called these sources mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to similarities that many people in the society share, such as values and religious beliefs. Organic solidarity results from the division of labour into specialized jobs. Durkheim believed that the division of labour makes people depend on one another and thus helps create unity in a society. Durkheim studied thousands of cases of suicide to demonstrate his theory that a person commits suicide because of the influence of society. He explained this theory in Suicide (1897).Max Weber- (1864-1920), Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Heidelberg. Other important workby Weber is Essays in Sociology and The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. His theories and writings helped establish the foundations of modern sociology. Weber considered bureaucracy to be the most important feature of modern society. Bureaucracy is a method of organization based on specialization of duties, action according to rules, and a stable order of authority. Weber also developed an ideal type method for studying society. This method studies the basic elements of social institutions and how these elements relate to one another .According to him scope of sociology is study and interpretation of social actions.A.R Desai was born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad in Gujarat and died in 1994 at Baroda. He consistently advocated and applied dialectical-historical model in his sociological studies. He closely studied the works of Marx and Engels and the writings of Trotsky. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field research. He rejects any interpretations of tradition with reference to religion, rituals and festivities. It is essentially a secular phenomenon. He finds it in family, village and other social institutions. He also does not find the origin of tradition in western culture. He considers that the emerging contradictions in the Indian process of social transformation arise mainly from the growing nexus among the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty-bourgeoisie and a state apparatus all drawn from similar social rootsProfessor Desai did his PhD under the guidance of Dr Ghurye in 1945.From very beginning he had interest in study of deprived classes of India. Right from days of 1951 he started to work of teaching in Bombay university, where he appointed as reader of Sociology. In 1959,when Dr Ghurye had retired ,he was appointed as head of department of sociology in same place. Due to interest in study of deprived classes, he was strong supporter of views of Karl Marx. He was founder member of Indian Sociological Society. In 1964 he read his important research paper on Rural Problems in third conference of sociology . After this paper he earned his more name and fame in field of Sociology.Dr Desai took part in France Rural Conference; Along with study and teaching he had interest in politics also. He has been member of Indian Communist Party. In 1953 he got membership of Trotskyism revolutionary socialism party. In 1994 he expired which was great loss in field of Sociology. His some books are very important which are as follow-In 1948 he wrote his first book named "Social Background of Indian Nationalism" which was based on interpretation of Dialectical Materialism of Karl Marx. The book is all about beginning and development of Indian national movement. He has used historical method in sociological study of phenomenon.The second important book of Desai is Rural Sociology in India. This book is edited by Desai and various writers have contributed their important views in The editing of the book is very systematical and logical, this is very useful book for students of sociology.His book Rural India in Transition is written on about government's policies and changing patterns of rural Structure. He has specially mentioned the land reforms, rural panchayats, Bhudan (Land donation)consequence of cooperative movements etc in this book. He also included other topics like up to what extent the mixed economy and individual ownership on land is being successful in India.Recent Trends in Indian Nationalism is his another important book. This is ever first book written on 'Indian nationalism' before independence. He also has explained conditions and futures of' Indian nationalism' after independence and thrown light on factors of hindrance in development of 'Indian nationalism'. He took help of sociological approach for studying change of social and political phenomenon.India's Path of Development : A Marxist Approach,this is also important book written by Desai. In this book he describes that how and up to what extent the implementation of the Government of India's development programs and life standard and economy of Indian people is influenced by Marxist Approach . He disagrees that maximum Government of India's development programs to solve the public problems are appropriate. He criticized the bureaucracy system of government.Desai's book on State and Society: Essays in India is also has great importance. He has described in this book about the relationship of society and state ,nature and origin of state ,development of state in India, functions and features of state, interpretation of monarchy system and ideal system etc. He also has described that how constitutionally a welfare state can fulfill the needs of deprived classes. He has opinion that the Government of India's development programs is influenced by policies of British administration and system of capitalism. Basically this book is also influenced by views of Karl Marx.
