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What are the strengths and weaknesses of the psychobiological approach?
there will be conflicts between the members of the org. because others may not understand the behavior of their group member
What are the 6 modern approaches in psychology?
MODERN APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY1. Psychobiological Approach 2. Cognitive Approach 3. Behavioral Approach 4. Psychoanalytic Approach5. Humanistic Approach 6. Cross-Cultural Approach
What has the author Kelli F Koltyn written?
Kelli F Koltyn has written: 'Psychobiological responses to paced scuba exercise' -- subject(s): Anxiety, Aquatic exercises, Body temperature, Psychological aspects, Psychological aspects of Aquatic exercises, Psychological aspects of Scuba diving, Psychophysiology, Scuba diving
Is biological psychology idiographic of nomothetic?
Biological psychology is generally nomothetic. The nomothetic approach aims to even out individual differences so that the observations lack bias. This justifies generalising the findings of such research. Because biological psychology research is primarily experimental, a nomothetical stance is assumed simply because researchers (using a psychobiological approach) are looking for typical behaviour, not unique behaviour - thus looking for data with which to apply a generalisation to all people, or most people.
What has the author Margaret Buckley written?
Margaret Buckley was an Irish politician who served as President of Sinn Féin. She was known for her involvement in the Irish Republican movement and for her efforts to promote Irish nationalism. She did not write any books or known literary works.
What is the difference between biology and psychology?
Biology is the study of the body while psychology is the study of behavior .. So for example if a girl lost 10 lbs (biology) she will feel more confident and become happy (psychology) this is how biology and psychology relate to each other .
What theoretical school of crime causation explains Ted Bundy?
Serial killers tend to be white, heterosexual males in their twenties and thirties who are sexually dysfunctional and have low self-esteem. Their methodical rampages are almost always sexual in nature. Their killings are usually part of an elaborate fantasy that builds to a climax at the moment of their murderous outburst. Serial killers generally murder strangers with cooling off periods between each crime. Many enjoy cannibalism, necrophilia and keep trophy-like body parts as mementos of their work. Serial killers are sadistic in nature. Some return to crime scenes or grave sites of their victims to fantasize about their deeds. Many like to insert themselves in the investigation of their crimes and some enjoy taunting authorities with letters or carefully placed pieces of evidence. Serial killers tend to prey on women and children of their same race. Prostitutes, drifters and hitchhikers are their victims of choice. Some homosexual killers enjoy hunting young boys and gay men. Female serial killers tend to be "black widows" who kill a succession of husbands, lovers, or other family members. They can also be nurses or other medical professionals who become self-appointed "angels of death" murdering babies, elderly, or the desperately ill in a misguided effort to relieve their suffering. Most serial killers grew up in violent households. As youngsters they enjoyed torturing animals, setting fires and were chronic bed-wetters. As adults, many serial have some type of brain damage and are addicted to alcohol and/or drugs.
What causes narcissim?
Child abuse creates false selfNarcissistic personality disorder is caused by either a direct or indirect form of child abuse. The child's "real self" is not accepted by the parent(s)/caregiver thus leaving the child with 2 alternatives - either to feel like "nothing" or to create a false self that the child constructs to ward off his/her feelings of nothingness. All the person's energy goes into creating and sustaining this false self at the expense of losing the real self. Another PerspectiveThe cause of NPD is unknown. There may be a genetic component since it has been documented that people with NPD often have a parent who is also narcissistic. The cause is probably extremely complex with many factors coming together to produce the disorder. It can derive from excessive pampering, overindulgence, lack of affection and praise, unpredictable caregiving, learned manipulative behaviors, extremely high expectations, abuse, neglect, a psychobiological malfunction in the connection between the brain and behavior and thinking, inherited tendencies, etc.
Are Humanzee chimp-human hybrids Possible?
That is hard to answer with certainty. Prof. Robin Bernstein of George Washington University says that it might be possible in a lab setting, but there are three barriers to this happening in the wild: 1) humans and chimps would not normally look at each other as mates; 2) the biological mechanisms of human and chimp sexual reproduction are not exactly the same; and 3) There are great differences at the chromosomal level. I will go over each of these. First, animals tend to mate with their own species. This is because they are genetically programed to detect certain bodily attributes or hormones that make the males or females of their species attractive. In addition, species that are active in different areas tend not to come in contact with each other. So the chances of a male chimp and a female human or a female chimp and a male human finding each other attractive and mating in the wild is very slim. However, chimps raised as human children have been shown to be attracted to humans. See the question "Could a chimp mate with a human?" for more information.Second, although both have similar reproductive systems, they are not exactly the same. For instance, chimpanzee penises are very long for their body size, but they are carrot-like in nature (i.e., it is wide at the base and tapers to a point). Human penises, on the other hand, are wide at the base and have a wide head. This means a chimp penis might not be rigid enough to reach far enough inside a human female to implant seed. The human penis might be too big to reach far enough inside a chimp female to do the same. It is important to mention that humans have forward-facing vaginas, while chimps have backwards-facing vaginas. Humans can have sex face to face, something that chimps can't do. Considering that chimps must mate in an awkward "doggie style," a human male might have problems orienting himself. The male chimp may have similar problems.Third, chimps have 48 chromosomes (2 pairs of 24) and humans have 46 (2 pairs of 23). It is known that human chromosome 2 is simply a fused version of the chimp chromosome, which accounts for us having 2 less chromosomes. Animals with different chromosome counts can't usually mate, but there are a few instances where they have. For example, horses have 64 (2 pairs of 32) and a donkey has 62 (2 pairs of 31), but yet they are able to produce a mule. Since the mule gets an unequal number of chromosomes from both parents, it is born sterile due to genetic abnormalities. Therefore, if a chimp-human hybrid could ever be brought to term, a male specimen could never reproduce. Yet, there is evidence that human ancestors and chimps might have interbred in the past.The oldest fossil associated with the human lineage is around 7 million years old. This means the joint human-chimp ancestor probably lived around this time. Yet, genetic chronology shows that the split between the lineages happened around 5 million years ago. In his article "Two Splits Between Human and Chimp Lines Suggested," science journalist Nicholas Wade describes genetic research that reconciles the difference by positing the separate human and chimp lineages might have continued to breed and later split for a second and final time. Genetic chronology shows that the X chromosome in the human and chimp lineages split over a million years before the other chromosomes. Dr. David Reich of Cambridge, the head researcher on the project, suggests this could have been caused by hybrid females interbreeding with chimpanzees (since hybrid males would not have been able to reproduce). In addition, he further suggests that this interbreeding could have hastened human evolution since it would have allowed us to better adapt to the new environment of the African savannah. Paleoanthropologists like Dr. David Pilbeam of Harvard are not quick to accept the information since genetic chronology only provides "relative ages, which are translated into real time by reference to a timescale established by early ape and monkey fossils." Further research is needed to determine if the hybrid theory is correct.The Russian biologist Ilya Ivanov tried for 4 years from 1926 to 1930 to produce a Humanzee in a lab setting. He initially gained permission from the French government and backing from the Soviet government in 1925 to start such experiments in Kindia in Guinea (northeastern Africa), but none of the chimps assigned to him a year later where sexually mature enough to carry children to term. He then relocated to the Guinean capital of Conakry in late 1926 to capture his own specimens. He artificially inseminated three female chimps with human sperm in early and mid-1927, but none of them became pregnant. After returning to Russia in 1929, he gained permission and backing from the Soviet government to conduct human trials. But after the 1929 election changed the USSR's power base, Ivanov's experiments were stopped and he was eventually arrested and exiled. To my knowledge, no one has tried (legally or otherwise) to create a Humanzee since then.Barring the natural barriers mentioned above, I believe there might be a psychobiological explanation for why Ivanov's early batch of chimps did not become pregnant. Ivanov captured wild chimps and then confined them to cages. One was even shipped from Africa to France by boat. Prof. Roger Fouts mentions in his book Next of Kin: My Conversation with Chimpanzees (1997) that such stress can cause adverse effects in chimps like hair-pulling and self-mutilation. Stress-induced chemicals like alpha-amylase have been shown to reduce a human woman's ability to become pregnant because it slows the descent of the egg. So it's possible that the stress from being confined to cages may have kept the chimp egg and human sperm from meeting. If he had used human-raised chimps who lived in spacious modern facilities, he may have had a better chance of succeeding. There is no telling what would have happened if the human trials were carried through.
Can both human and chimps interbreed?
That is hard to answer with certainty. Prof. Robin Bernstein of George Washington University says that it might be possible in a lab setting, but there are three barriers to this happening in the wild: 1) humans and chimps would not normally look at each other as mates; 2) the biological mechanisms of human and chimp sexual reproduction are not exactly the same; and 3) There are great differences at the chromosomal level. I will go over each of these. First, animals tend to mate with their own species. This is because they are genetically programed to detect certain bodily attributes or hormones that make the males or females of their species attractive. In addition, species that are active in different areas tend not to come in contact with each other. So the chances of a male chimp and a female human or a female chimp and a male human finding each other attractive and mating in the wild is very slim. However, chimps raised as human children have been shown to be attracted to humans. See the question "Could a chimp mate with a human?" for more information.Second, although both have similar reproductive systems, they are not exactly the same. For instance, chimpanzee penises are very long for their body size, but they are carrot-like in nature (i.e., it is wide at the base and tapers to a point). Human penises, on the other hand, are wide at the base and have a wide head. This means a chimp penis might not be rigid enough to reach far enough inside a human female to implant seed. The human penis might be too big to reach far enough inside a chimp female to do the same. It is important to mention that humans have forward-facing vaginas, while chimps have backwards-facing vaginas. Humans can have sex face to face, something that chimps can't do. Considering that chimps must mate in an awkward "doggie style," a human male might have problems orienting himself. The male chimp may have similar problems.Third, chimps have 48 chromosomes (2 pairs of 24) and humans have 46 (2 pairs of 23). It is known that human chromosome 2 is simply a fused version of the chimp chromosome, which accounts for us having 2 less chromosomes. Animals with different chromosome counts can't usually mate, but there are a few instances where they have. For example, horses have 64 (2 pairs of 32) and a donkey has 62 (2 pairs of 31), but yet they are able to produce a mule. Since the mule gets an unequal number of chromosomes from both parents, it is born sterile due to genetic abnormalities. Therefore, if a chimp-human hybrid could ever be brought to term, a male specimen could never reproduce. Yet, there is evidence that human ancestors and chimps might have interbred in the past.The oldest fossil associated with the human lineage is around 7 million years old. This means the joint human-chimp ancestor probably lived around this time. Yet, genetic chronology shows that the split between the lineages happened around 5 million years ago. In his article "Two Splits Between Human and Chimp Lines Suggested," science journalist Nicholas Wade describes genetic research that reconciles the difference by positing the separate human and chimp lineages might have continued to breed and later split for a second and final time. Genetic chronology shows that the X chromosome in the human and chimp lineages split over a million years before the other chromosomes. Dr. David Reich of Cambridge, the head researcher on the project, suggests this could have been caused by hybrid females interbreeding with chimpanzees (since hybrid males would not have been able to reproduce). In addition, he further suggests that this interbreeding could have hastened human evolution since it would have allowed us to better adapt to the new environment of the African savannah. Paleoanthropologists like Dr. David Pilbeam of Harvard are not quick to accept the information since genetic chronology only provides "relative ages, which are translated into real time by reference to a timescale established by early ape and monkey fossils." Further research is needed to determine if the hybrid theory is correct.The Russian biologist Ilya Ivanov tried for 4 years from 1926 to 1930 to produce a Humanzee in a lab setting. He initially gained permission from the French government and backing from the Soviet government in 1925 to start such experiments in Kindia in Guinea (northeastern Africa), but none of the chimps assigned to him a year later where sexually mature enough to carry children to term. He then relocated to the Guinean capital of Conakry in late 1926 to capture his own specimens. He artificially inseminated three female chimps with human sperm in early and mid-1927, but none of them became pregnant. After returning to Russia in 1929, he gained permission and backing from the Soviet government to conduct human trials. But after the 1929 election changed the USSR's power base, Ivanov's experiments were stopped and he was eventually arrested and exiled. To my knowledge, no one has tried (legally or otherwise) to create a Humanzee since then.Barring the natural barriers mentioned above, I believe there might be a psychobiological explanation for why Ivanov's early batch of chimps did not become pregnant. Ivanov captured wild chimps and then confined them to cages. One was even shipped from Africa to France by boat. Prof. Roger Fouts mentions in his book Next of Kin: My Conversation with Chimpanzees (1997) that such stress can cause adverse effects in chimps like hair-pulling and self-mutilation. Stress-induced chemicals like alpha-amylase have been shown to reduce a human woman's ability to become pregnant because it slows the descent of the egg. So it's possible that the stress from being confined to cages may have kept the chimp egg and human sperm from meeting. If he had used human-raised chimps who lived in spacious modern facilities, he may have had a better chance of succeeding. There is no telling what would have happened if the human trials were carried through.
Does circumcision have medical benefits?
No according to all medical authority's there are no benefits in being circumcised on the contrary there are distinct disadvantages to health. especially in the case of young children.Circumcision is Not Good Health PolicyA cost-utility analysis, based on published data from multiple observational studies, comparing boys circumcised at birth and those not circumcised was undertaken using the Quality of Well-being Scale, a Markov analysis, the standard reference case, and a societal perspective. Neonatal circumcision increased incremental costs by $828.42 per patient and resulted in an incremental 15.30 well-years lost per 1000 males. If neonatal circumcision was cost-free, pain-free, and had no immediate complications, it was still more costly than not circumcising. Using sensitivity analysis, it was impossible to arrange a scenario that made neonatal circumcision cost-effective. Neonatal circumcision is not good health policy, and support for it as a medical procedure cannot be justified financially or medically. Van Howe, R., "A Cost-Utility Analysis of Neonatal Circumcision," Medical Decision Making 24 (2004):584-601.Pain, Trauma, Sexual, and Psychological Effects of CircumcisionInfant male circumcision continues despite growing questions about its medical justification. As usually performed without analgesia or anaesthetic, circumcision is observably painful. It is likely that genital cutting has physical, sexual and psychological consequences, too. Some studies link involuntary male circumcision with a range of negative emotions and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some circumcised men have described their current feelings in the language of violation, torture, mutilation and sexual assault. In view of the acute as well as long-term risks from circumcision and the legal liabilities that might arise, it is timely for health professionals and scientists to re-examine the evidence on this issue and participate in the debate about the advisability of this surgical procedure on unconsenting minors. Boyle G. et al., "Male Circumcision: Pain, Trauma and Psychosexual Sequelae," Journal of Health Psychology (2002): 329-343.Circumcision Results in Significant Loss of Erogenous TissueA report published in the British Journal of Urology assessed the type and amount of tissue missing from the adult circumcised penis by examining adult foreskins obtained at autopsy. Investigators found that circumcision removes about one-half of the erogenous tissue on the penile shaft. The foreskin, according to the study, protects the head of the penis and is comprised of unique zones with several kinds of specialized nerves that are important to optimum sexual sensitivity. Taylor, J. et al., "The Prepuce: Specialized Mucosa of the Penis and Its Loss to Circumcision," BJU 77 (1996): 291-295.Circumcision Affects Sexual BehaviorA study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that circumcision provided no significant prophylactic benefit and that circumcised men were more likely to engage in various sexual practices. Specifically, circumcised men were significantly more likely to masturbate and to participate in heterosexual oral sex than uncircumcised men. Laumann, E. et al., "Circumcision in the U.S.: Prevalence, Prophylactic Effects, and Sexual Practice," JAMA 277 (1997): 1052-1057.Researchers Demonstrate Traumatic Effects of CircumcisionA team of Canadian researchers produced new evidence that circumcision has long-lasting traumatic effects. An article published in the international medical journal The Lancet reported the effect of infant circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination. The researchers tested 87 infants at 4 months or 6 months of age. The boys who had been circumcised were more sensitive to pain than the uncircumcised boys. Differences between groups were significant regarding facial action, crying time, and assessments of pain. The authors believe that "neonatal circumcision may induce long-lasting changes in infant pain behavior because of alterations in the infant's central neural processing of painful stimuli." They also write that "the long-term consequences of surgery done without anaesthesia are likely to include post-traumatic stress as well as pain. It is therefore possible that the greater vaccination response in the infants circumcised without anaesthesia may represent an infant analogue of a post-traumatic stress disorder triggered by a traumatic and painful event and re-experienced under similar circumstances of pain during vaccination." Taddio, A. et al., "Effect of Neonatal Circumcision on Pain Response during Subsequent Routine Vaccination," The Lancet 349 (1997): 599-603.Circumcision Study Halted Due to TraumaResearchers found circumcision so traumatic that they ended the study early rather than subject any more infants to the operation without anesthesia. Those infants circumcised without anesthesia experienced not only severe pain, but also an increased risk of choking and difficulty breathing. The findings were published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Up to 96% of infants in some areas of the United States receive no anesthesia during circumcision. No anesthetic currently in use for circumcisions is effective during the most painful parts of the procedure. Lander, J. et al., "Comparison of Ring Block, Dorsal Penile Nerve Block, and Topical Anesthesia for Neonatal Circumcision," JAMA 278 (1997): 2157-2162.Circumcised Penis Requires More Care in Young BoysThe circumcised penis requires more care than the natural penis during the first three years of life, according to a report in the British Journal of Urology. The clinical findings of an American pediatrician showed that circumcised boys were significantly more likely to have skin adhesions, trapped debris, irritated urinary opening, and inflammation of the glans (head of the penis) than were boys with a foreskin. Furthermore, because there are large variations of appearance in circumcised boys, circumcision for cosmetic reasons should be discouraged. Van Howe, R., "Variability in Penile Appearance and Penile Findings: A Prospective Study," BJU 80 (1997): 776-782.Poll of Circumcised Men Reveals HarmA poll of circumcised men published in the British Journal of Urology describes adverse outcomes on men's health and well-being. Findings showed wide-ranging physical, sexual, and psychological consequences. Some respondents reported prominent scarring and excessive skin loss. Sexual consequences included progressive loss of sensitivity and sexual dysfunction. Emotional distress followed the realization that they were missing a functioning part of their penis. Low-self esteem, resentment, avoidance of intimacy, and depression were also noted. Hammond, T., "A Preliminary Poll of Men Circumcised in Infancy or Childhood," BJU 83 (1999): suppl. 1: 85-92Psychological Effects of Circumcision StudiedAn article titled "The Psychological Impact of Circumcision" reports that circumcision results in behavioral changes in infants and long-term unrecognized psychological effects on men. The piece reviews the medical literature on infants' responses to circumcision and concludes, "there is strong evidence that circumcision is overwhelmingly painful and traumatic." The article notes that infants exhibit behavioral changes after circumcision, and some men have strong feelings of anger, shame, distrust, and grief about having been circumcised. In addition, circumcision has been shown to disrupt the mother-infant bond, and some mothers report significant distress after allowing their son to be circumcised. Psychological factors perpetuate circumcision. According to the author, "defending circumcision requires minimizing or dismissing the harm and producing overstated medical claims about protection from future harm. The ongoing denial requires the acceptance of false beliefs and misunderstanding of facts. These psychological factors affect professionals, members of religious groups, and parents involved in the practice." Expressions from circumcised men are generally lacking because most circumcised men do not understand what circumcision is, emotional repression keeps feelings from awareness, or men may be aware of these feelings but afraid of disclosure. Goldman, R., "The Psychological Impact of Circumcision," BJU 83 (1999): suppl. 1: 93-102Serious Consequences of Circumcision Trauma in Adult Men Clinically ObservedUsing four case examples that are typical among his clients, a practicing psychiatrist presents clinical findings regarding the serious and sometimes disabling long-term somatic, emotional, and psychological consequences of infant circumcision in adult men. These consequences resemble complex post-traumatic stress disorder and emerge during psychotherapy focused on the resolution of perinatal and developmental trauma. Adult symptoms associated with circumcision trauma include shyness, anger, fear, powerlessness, distrust, low self-esteem, relationship difficulties, and sexual shame. Long-term psychotherapy dealing with early trauma resolution appears to be effective in healing these consequences. Rhinehart, J., "Neonatal Circumcision Revistited," Transactional Analysis Journal 29 (1999): 215-221Anatomy and Function of the Foreskin DocumentedA new article describes the foreskin (prepuce) as an integral, normal part of the genitals of mammals. It is specialized, protective, erogenous tissue. A description of the complex nerve structure of the penis explains why anesthetics provide incomplete pain relief during circumcision. Cutting off the foreskin removes many fine-touch receptors from the penis and results in thickening and desensitization of the glans outer layer. The complex anatomy and function of the foreskin dictate that circumcision should be avoided or deferred until the person can make an informed decision as an adult. Cold, C. and Taylor, J., "The Prepuce," BJU 83 (1999): suppl. 1: 34-44.Male Circumcision Affects Female Sexual EnjoymentA survey of women who have had sexual experience with circumcised and anatomically complete partners showed that the anatomically complete penis was preferred over the circumcised penis. Without the foreskin to provide a movable sleeve of skin, intercourse with a circumcised penis resulted in female discomfort from increased friction, abrasion, and loss of natural secretions. Respondents overwhelmingly concurred that the mechanics of coitus were different for the two groups of men. Unaltered men tended to thrust more gently with shorter strokes. O'Hara, K. and O'Hara, J., "The Effect of Male Circumcision on the Sexual Enjoyment of the Female Partner," BJU 83 (1999): suppl. 1: 79-84Male Circumcision and Psychosexual Effects InvestigatedInfant male circumcision continues despite growing questions about its medical justification. As usually performed without analgesia or anesthetic, circumcision is observably painful. It is likely that genital cutting has physical, sexual, and psychological consequences, too. Some studies link involuntary male circumcision with a range of negative emotions and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some circumcised men have described their current feelings in the language of violation, torture, mutilation, and sexual assault. In view of the acute as well as long-term risks from circumcision and the legal liabilities that might arise, it is timely for health professionals and scientists to re-examine the evidence on this issue and participate in the debate about the advisability of this surgical procedure on unconsenting minors. Boyle, G., Goldman, R., Svoboda, J.S., and Fernandez, E., "Male Circumcision: Pain, Trauma, and Psychosexual Sequelae," Journal of Health Psychology 7 (2002): 329-343.Surveys Reveal Adverse Sexual and Psychological Effects of CircumcisionA survey of the 35 female and 42 gay sexual partners of circumcised and genitally intact men, and a separate survey of 53 circumcised and genitally intact men, and a separate survey of 30 genitally intact men themselves indicated that circumcised men experienced significantly reduced sexual sensation along with associated long-lasting negative emotional consequences. Boyle, G. and Bensley, G., "Adverse Sexual and Psychological Effects of Male Infant Circumcision,". Psychological Reports 88 (2001): 1105-1106.Foreskin Reduces the Force Required for Penetration and Increases ComfortMasters and Johnson observed that the foreskin unrolled with intercourse. However, they overlooked a prior observation that intromission (i.e., penetration) was thereby made easier. To evaluate this observation an artificial introitus was mounted on scales. Repeated measurements showed a 10-fold reduction of force on entry with an initially unretracted foreskin as compared to entry with a retracted foreskin. For the foreskin to reduce the force required it must cover most of the glans when the penis is erect. Taves, D., "The Intromission Function of the Foreskin," Med Hypotheses 59 (2002): 180.Survey of Men Circumcised as Adults Shows Mixed ResultsMen circumcised as adults were surveyed to assess erectile function, penile sensitivity, sexual activity and overall satisfaction. Over 80% of these men were circumcised to treat a medical problem. The response rate was 44% among potential responders. Mean age of responders was 42 years at circumcision and 46 years at survey. Adult circumcision appears to result in worsened erectile function, decreased penile sensitivity, no change in sexual activity, and improved satisfaction. Of the men 50% reported benefits and 38% reported harm. Overall, 62% of men were satisfied with having been circumcised. Note: Results may be affected by the fact that there was no sample of normal, healthy, genitally intact men for comparison. Fink, K., Carson, C., DeVellis, R., "Adult Circumcision Outcomes Study: Effect on Erectile Function, Penile Sensitivity, Sexual Activity and Satisfaction," J Urol 167 (2002): 2113-2116.Survey Finds Circumcision Contributes to Vaginal DrynessThe impact of male circumcision on vaginal dryness during coitus was investigated. We conducted a survey of 35 female sexual partners aged 18 to 69 years who had experienced sexual intercourse with both circumcised and genitally intact men. Women reported they were significantly more likely to have experienced vaginal dryness during intercourse with circumcised than with genitally intact men. Bensley, G. and Boyle, G., "Effects of Male Circumcision on Female Arousal and Orgasm," N Z Med J 116 (2003): 595-596.Early Adverse Experiences May Lead to Abnormal Brain Development and BehaviorSelf-destructive behavior in current society promotes a search for psychobiological factors underlying this epidemic. The brain of the newborn infant is particularly vulnerability to early adverse experiences, leading to abnormal development and behavior. Although several investigations have correlated newborn complications with abnormal adult behavior, our understanding of the underlying mechanisms remains rudimentary. Models of early experience, such as repetitive pain, sepsis, or maternal separation in rodents and other species have noted multiple alterations in the adult brain, correlated with specific behavioral types depending on the timing and nature of the adverse experience. The mechanisms mediating such changes in the newborn brain have remained largely unexplored. Maternal separation, sensory isolation (understimulation), and exposure to extreme or repetitive pain (overstimulation) may cause altered brain development. (Circumcision is described as an intervention with long-term neurobehavioral effects.) These changes promote two distinct behavioral types characterized by increased anxiety, altered pain sensitivity, stress disorders, hyperactivity/attention deficit disorder, leading to impaired social skills and patterns of self-destructive behavior. The clinical importance of these mechanisms lies in the prevention of early adverse experiences and effective treatment of newborn pain and stress. Anand, K. and Scalzo, F., "Can Adverse Neonatal Experiences Alter Brain Development and Subsequent Behavior? Biol Neonate 77 (2000): 69-82Note: CRC disapproves of animal studies that involve inflicting pain.
Does circumcision have ANY medical benefits?
Male circumcision, particularly when the foreskin is completely amputated, as in typical US medical style, completely exposes the glans -- that is, the head. Because the glans is designed to be an internal body part, such as the inside of the eyelids or cheek, it is meant to remain moist at all times. Through circumcision, the glans becomes calloused, hardened, and loses its natural sensitivity. In rare cases it has resulted in the loss of the glans or the penis itself through infection.Stimulation of the glans is key to reaching orgasm, so the sexual impact of circumcision is that intercourse requires a more fervent and strenuous effort in order to achieve orgasm.The worldwide estimate of males circumcised is 10-20%, and it is only rarely recommended for medical reasons. In some countries it is illegal.Female circumcision, on the other hand, is almost universally outlawed. This entails a cutting away of either the clitorisor inner labia. In many cases no future sexual pleasure can be experienced, and in some cases the girl is unable to conceive. It is typically performed by non-medical people for cultural reasons, and it results in the ultimate oppression and sexual objectification of the young girls who fall victim to it.
