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Judaism doesn't spend a lot of time discussing what happens when we die; in fact, there's not much mention of this subject in the Tanach (Jewish Bible) at all.
There are some loose theories of what might happen though:
* When we die, our souls are cleansed of any wrongdoings. This is done by our accounting of every action done in life. It's believed that this process takes no longer than 12 months but most people don't do enough bad in life to warrant it taking a full 12 months.
* Our souls return to HaShem (God) to wait for the world to come.
* Our souls may be reincarnated into different people so that we have additional chances to work to become closer to HaShem.
* Those souls that choose to be truly evil in life, cannot survive the process of cleansing and cease to exist.
The following answer may have factual sources, but the truth is that Jews today do not focus on life after death. They focus exclusively on this life.
Another answer
Judaism is, in fact, replete with references to life after death. This is one of the most fundamental beliefs of Judaism, and a whole chapter of the Talmud (Sanhedrin, ch. 11) is devoted to this subject.
The Torah states a number of times before someone's death that "You will come to your forefathers" (Genesis 15:15), or "You will be gathered unto your people" (Deuteronomy, end of ch. 32). These verses can only be referring to the continued existence of the soul after death. They do not mean mere location of burial, since the people to whom God said this (Abraham and Moses, respectively) were not buried with their forefathers.
The prophets speak more fully of the life after death, including well-known verses such as Isaiah 26:19, Daniel 12:13, and many others.
Admittedly, the question may be asked why the Tanakh (Bible) doesn't spend a lot of time on the subject of life after death. Some answers are:
1) Everyone believed in the afterlife in those generations, including such scientifically-minded rationalists as the ancient Greeks. This belief is instinctive.
2) Other nations might compete with even grander future promises, which in this world cannot be disproved.
3) A great number of Jewish core-attitudes are expanded upon only in the Talmud.
More reasons for the above can be found in the Kli Yakar commentary on Leviticus ch. 26.
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