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What is the shahnameh?

Updated: 10/20/2022
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12y ago

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it is one of the longest, if not the longest, epic story written. it was written by the great Persian poet/author ferdowsi in 1000 . the main character is rotam, a hero that is a flawed character, showing the true human nature. the book is enormously long and took ferdowsi 30 years to complete. it is tied to Persian nationalism (of greater Persia because it was written then) and zoroastrianism (Persian religion at the time, first monotheistic religion of the world derived from Persia). the stories also empower women, with one battle against a woman almost resulting to a draw and two of the men characters who were looking to wed being picked as mates by the women. rotam battled his son and only realized it upon beating him. various parts of the story have been extracted and used (as well as credited) by authors and directors... ie Star Wars, Lord of the Rings, chronicles of Narnia

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What is the significance of the shahnameh in The Kite Runner?

In "The Kite Runner," the Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, is important as symbolizing cultural heritage and storytelling tradition in Afghanistan. It serves as a connection to the country's past glory and history, reflecting themes of loyalty, betrayal, and redemption that resonate with the novel's narrative. The Shahnameh also represents the conflict between modern influences and traditional values in the characters' lives.


Which holy book serves as constitution of Iran?

The Quran is a very influential book in Iran, though it is preceded by the holy texts of the Zoroastrian religion. Also, though not a holy text, Shahnameh has deep roots in Iranian culture. Officially, it is Iran's national epic.


When the Iranian Shahnameh hero Rostam would have fought in a dual against Frisian freedom fighter Pier Gerlofs Donia who would have probably won?

Rostam and Pier lived in different times, different cultures and among different people; there is now way they couldm have met each other. If they did, it would have been one hell of a sight! You should not forget, however; Rostam was a hero, and Donia was just a man driven insane by the killing of his intire family. A man who fights demons and wizards in ancient times, shouldn't have much problems defeating a slow brute. So the fight would likely go something like this:Rostam walks towards his enemy, who is an awfully large brute, and takes his sword without even the slightest fear or regret. Before Donia can even grab his 2,15 meter sword, Rostam stands in front of him, stabbing him in the upper leg or abdomen with his own. By then, Donia would have wielded the gigantic sword, but due the pain of the wound inflicted, his strike likely misses his opponent. Than, Rostam cuts the enormous hand of Donia, and the giant drops his sword. After this, Rostam would have stabbed the giant in the chest, finishing him of. That's my opinion.


How did Iran get its name?

In order one needs to understand this, one needs to know about the history, which for some political reasons have been altered by historians.Iran is the oldest civilization in Eurasia (Europe and Asia) nearly 8,000 years old, very much governed and like the Old Soviet Union. It spanned from Punjab, Keshmir to Germany, and the current Russia to The Arabian Sea, with their capital at "Hallil Rood", in Kerman, Iran. Iran means land of "Arians." Several Arian dynasties rulled Iran over time in the ancient time: Kianinan and Pishdadian, and Maad before the Persians took power. Most of the civilizations in the northern Europe, Central Asia and parts of Mediteranian Sea have an Iranian root.The name Iran has appeared in Ferdossi Shahnameh which is a history mixed with the mythology of ancient Iran, which clearly indicates that the Persians (or Prussians) were the most dominant country in the union until Islam became the main religion in the Union. The Iranian religions have changed many times. Initially they worshiped "Mitra", the god of lights (the sun). Over time "Mitraism" changed to Christianity on the north and western part of the Union, and "Zorastranism", "Mazdakism", "Monnyism", and eventually to "Islam" in the southeastern part of the Union. All conventional religions in the world came from Mitraism.Over time the Iranian civilization became a hybrid civilization. The Nortern and western parts became independent and mixed with the Mediteranian people (Romans) and the Eastern and southern parts mixed with Arabs, Central Asian Turks, and Indians (current India and Pakistan). The Persian states did not have "Estan" at the end of their names, but other states (countries) within the union like "Tajikestan, Tortaministan", "Arabestan" (Known as Arabia), "Kordestan", etc. At one time, racism became a major issue in the Union and the Persians were outnumbered by the non-Persians in the Union. Then Islam became the main religion in the union with a strong message: "All races are equal." The Iranians converted to Islam and formed the Abbasi Empire and took Islam to Europe, African and East Asia.In the Western world, Persia was historically the common name for Iran. In 1935, Reza Shah asked foreign delegates to use the term Iran (the historical name of the country, used by its native people) in formal correspondence. Since then, in the Western World, the use of the word "Iran" has become more common. This also changed the usage of the names for the Iranian nationality, and the common adjective for citizens of Iran changed from Persian to Iranian. In 1959, the government of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah Pahlavi's son, announced that both "Persia" and "Iran" could officially be used interchangeably.[1] Nonetheless, the word "Iran" has replaced "Persia" in the common usage.Iran named by Ariaee nationit mean Ariaee LandAriaee mean honorable & noble peopleconsequent : Iran mean Land of honorable & noble people


Names that start with b?

Bac Scottish Bank Backstere English Baker Bader Arabic Full Moon (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Badru Egyptian Born under a Full Moon. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BaecereAnglo-Saxon Baker Baen Scottish Fair skinned BaergenScandinavian Little Man (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Baerhloew English Ruler or lives on the bare hill Baethan Irish Foolish Bagdemagus Arthurian Legend Father of Meleagant Baghel Arabic Ox Baha Unknown The Glory of God (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bahir Arabic Sparkling Baigh Scottish From the upper part Bailey English Steward or public official; man in charge. Bailey French Steward or public official; man in charge. Bailian Unknown One who leads. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bailintin Irish Valiant BaIloch Scottish From the pasture Bainbridge English Lives near the bridge over the white water BainbrydgeEnglish Lives near the bridge over the white water BairdScottish From Baird Baird Celtic Bard Baird English Minstrel; a singer-poet. Baird Irish Bard BairrfhionnCeltic Marksman Bairrfhoinn Irish Handsome BakerEnglish Baker Baldemar German Princely Balder English Bold army Baldhere English Bold army BaldliceAnglo-Saxon Bold Baldric German Bold Baldrik German Bold Balduin German Bold friend Baldulf Arthurian Legend A knight Baldwin German Bold friend BaldwynGerman Bold friend Balen Arthurian Legend Brother of Balaan Balfour Scottish From the pastureland BalgairScottish Fox Balgaire Scottish Fox Balin Arthurian Legend Brother of Balaan Balkan Europe Derived from the Balkans region in Europe. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Balkrishna Hindu Baby Krishna- the one who brought joy and togetherness (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Ballinamore Irish From the great river Ballindeny Irish From the town of oak wood BalmoralScottish From the majestic village Baltasar German Protected by God Balthazar Unknown One of the three Wise Men. A bottle of wine that has the equivalant of 12 bottles total. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bama Hebrew Son of prophecy Bamard German Brave as a bear Bamey German Brave as a bear Ban Arthurian Legend Father of Lancelot BanaAnglo-Saxon Slayer Banaing English Son of the slayer Banan Anglo-Saxon Slayer Banan Irish White Banbhan Irish Piglet Banbrigge English Lives near the bridge over the white water Bancroft English From the bean field Bandr Iranian Strong and caring (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bane Hawaiian Long awaited child (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bannan German Commander Banner Scottish Flag; ensign bearer. BannerEnglish Flag; ensign bearer. Banning Anglo-Saxon One who reads the banns Banning English Son of the slayer Bannruod German Famous commander Bar Anglo-Saxon Boar Barak Hebrew Flash of lightning. In the bible the valiant fighting man Barak cooperated with the prophetess Deborah to win victory in battle against overwhelming odds. Barakah Arabic Blessed Baram Hebrew Son of the nation BarclayEnglish The birch tree meadow. See also Berkley. BarclayScottish The birch tree meadow. See also Berkley. BarclayAnglo-Saxon From the birch meadow Bard Celtic Minstrel; a singer-poet. Bard English Minstrel; a singer-poet. Bardalph English Ax wolf Bardan English Lives near the boar's den Bardaric English Ax ruler BardarikEnglish Ax ruler Bardawulf English Ax wolf BardayScottish From Berkeley Barden Celtic Minstrel; a singer-poet. Barden English Lives near the boar's den Bardene English From the boar valley Bardo English Variant of Bartholomew often used as a surname. BardolfEnglish Ax wolf Bardolph English Ax wolf BardonEnglish Minstrel; a singer-poet. Bardon Celtic Minstrel; a singer-poet. Bardrick English Ax ruler BardulfEnglish Ax wolf Barhloew English Lives on the bare hill Bari Arabic Of Allah Baris Turkish Peace (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Barlow English Lives on the bare hill Barnabas Hebrew Son of comfort. A biblical first-century missionary companion of Paul. BarnabeHebrew Son of prophecy Barnaby English Son of comfort. Barnaby Hebrew Son of prophecy Barnard English Variant of Bernard - strong as a bear. Barnard German Variant of Bernard - strong as a bear. Barnet English Of honorable birth. Barnett English Leader BarneyEnglish Son of comfort. Barnum English From the nobleman's home Baron French A title of nobility used as a given name. Baron Hebrew Derived from phrase Bar Aaron meaning - son of Aaron. Baron English Warrior; A title of nobility used as a given name. Barr English Gateway Barra Celtic Marksman Barrak Hebrew Flash of lightning. In the bible the valiant fighting man Barak cooperated with the prophetess Deborah to win victory in battle against overwhelming odds. BarramIrish Handsome Barre English Gateway Barret German Mighty as a bear Barret English Variant of Barnett. Barrett English Variant of Barnett. Barrett German Brave as a bear Barric English Grain farm. BarrickEnglish Grain farm. Barrie Irish Fair-haired. BarrieEnglish Fair-haired. Barrie French Lives at the barrier Barrington English Fair-haired. Barrington Irish Fair-haired. Barron English Warrior; Variant of the title Baron. Barrow Irish Strong, of well stature (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Barry Celtic Marksman BarryEnglish Fair-haired. Barry French Lives at the barrier Barry Irish Fair-haired. Bart Hebrew Ploughman Bart English From the barley farm Bartel Hebrew Ploughman Bartel English Variant of Bartholomew often used as a surname. Barth English Son of the earth; Variant of Bartholomew often used as a surname. Bartholomew Hebrew Ploughman Barthram English Glorious raven BartleahEnglish From Bart's meadow Bartleigh English From Bart's meadow Bartlett French Ploughman Bartley Scottish The birch tree meadow. See also Berkley. Bartley English The birch tree meadow. See also Berkley. Bartley Hebrew Ploughman Bartoli Spanish Ploughman Bartolo Spanish Ploughman Bartolome Spanish Ploughman Barton English From the barley farm Bartram German Glorious raven. Bartram English Glorious raven. Baruch Hebrew Blessed Barwolf English Ax wolf Bashiri Swahilli Prophet or foreteller. (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bashshar Arabic Brings good news Basil English Royal; kingly. Basilio Spanish Noble Bassam Bassam Smile baby (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BatesEnglish Variant of Bartholomew often used as a surname. Bathmithan Indian Beautiful and harmonize (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bawdewyn Anglo-Saxon Bold friend Bawdewyne Anglo-Saxon Bold friend Bax English Baker Baxter English Baker Bay English Variant of Bayard - auburn-haired. Bay French Variant of Bayard - auburn-haired. Bayanda African boys are growing in numbers in a family (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bayard English Auburn-haired. Bayard French Auburn-haired. Bayard was a sixteenth-century French knight and national hero renowned for valor and purity of heart. Baye Africa Straight forward (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BayenAnglo-Saxon From Ban Bayhard English Reddish brown hair Baylen English Variant of Bayard - auburn-haired. Baylen French Variant of Bayard - auburn-haired. Bayler Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bayley English Steward or public official; man in charge. Bayley French Steward Beacan Celtic Small Beacher English Lives by the beech tree BeadurincAnglo-Saxon Warrior Beadutun English From the warrior's estate Beadwof Anglo-Saxon Bold in war Beal English Handsome. Beal French Handsome. Beale English Handsome. Beale French Handsome. Beall English Handsome. Beall French Handsome. BealohydigAnglo-Saxon Enemy Beaman English Beekeeper BeamardIrish Brave as a bear Beamer English Trumpeter BeanScottish Fair skinned Bear Canada Bear or steal strength (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bearacb Celtic Marksman Bearcban Celtic Marksman Bearn Anglo-Saxon Son Bearnard Scottish Bear strong Beartlaidh Irish From Bart's meadow Beathan Scottish Son of the righthand Beaton English From the warrior's estate Beau French Handsome. Beaufort French From the beautiful fortress Beaumains Arthurian Legend White hands BeauregardFrench Respected; in high regard. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Beauvais French From Beauvais BebeodanAnglo-Saxon Commands Becan Celtic Small BeceereEnglish Lives by the beech tree Beck English Brook Beckett Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Beckham English (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bede Anglo-Saxon Name of a historian Bede English Prayer Bedivere Arthurian Legend Returns Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake Bedver Arthurian Legend Returns Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake Bedwyr Arthurian Legend Returns Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake Bedwyr Celtic Arthurian legend name Beecher English Lives by the beech tree Behrend German Variable of Berend: brave as a bear (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BeinvenidoSpanish Welcome Beiste Scottish Beast Bek English Brook Bela Hebrew Destruction Beldan English Lives in the beautiful glen Beldane English Lives in the beautiful glen Belden English Lives in the beautiful glen Beldene English Lives in the beautiful glen BeldonEnglish Lives in the beautiful glen Bell French Handsome Bellamy French Handsome Bellangere Arthurian Legend Son of Alexandre Bellinus Anglo-Saxon Name of a king Beltran Spanish Bright raven Bem German Bear Bemabe Spanish Son of comfort. Bembe Spanish Spanish form of Barnaby - prophet Bemeere English Trumpeter Bemelle English Variant of Bernard - strong as a bear. Bemelle German Variant of Bernard - strong as a bear. Bemossed Native American Walker Bemot German Brave as a bear Ben English Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Ben Hebrew Son of Zion or usually just son BenajimEthiopia So happy to see you (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Benat German Brave as a bear Bendigeidfran Celtic Name of a king Benecroft English From the bean field Benedetto Italian A blessing...a benediction (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Benedicto Spanish Blessed Benedictson Hebrew Son of Benedict Benen Irish Kind Beniamino Hebrew Son of the right hand Benicio Latin Benevolent one. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Benito Latin Blessed (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Benjamin Hebrew Son of the right hand. In the bible the patriarch Jacob's twelfth and most beloved son. Benji English Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Benjie Hebrew Son of the right hand (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Benjiman Unknown Alternate spelling of Benjamin (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Benjy English Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Benkamin Hebrew Ploughman Benn English Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Bennet English Variant of Benedict. Bennett English Variant of Benedict. BennieEnglish Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Benny English Abbreviation of Benjamin and Benedict. Benoic Anglo-Saxon From Ban Benoit France Derivative of Benedict, giver of grace. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BenonEnglish Variant of Bert - industrious. Benoni Hebrew Son of my sorrows Benoyce Arthurian Legend Name of a kingdom Benroy Hebrew Son of a lion Benson Hebrew Son of Benjamin Benson English Variant of Benedict. BentleahEnglish From the bent grass meadow Bentleigh English From the bent grass meadow Bentley English From the bent grass meadow Benton English Settlement in a grassy place. Benwick Anglo-Saxon From Ban Benzion Hebrew Son of Zion Beolagh Irish Foolish Beomann English Beekeeper Beore English Birch tree Beorht English Glorious Beorhthram English Bright raven Beorhthramm English Glorious raven Beorhttun English From the fortified town Beorn Anglo-Saxon Warrior Beornet English Leader Beornham English From the nobleman's home BeornwulfAnglo-Saxon Name of a king Beowulf Anglo-Saxon Intelligent wolf Ber German Bear Berakhiah Hebrew God blesses Berchtwald German Bright ruler Bercilak Arthurian Legend The Green Knight Bercleah English Lives at the birch tree meadow Berdy German Intelligent Berend German Brave as a bear Beresford English From the barley ford Beretun English From the barley farm Berford English From the barley ford Berg German Mountain BerhaneEthiopia Light, hope (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Beric English Grain farm. Berinhard German Brave as a bear Berk Irish The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berk English The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berke Irish The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berke English The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berkeley Anglo-Saxon From the birch meadow Berkeley English Lives at the birch tree meadow Berkeley Irish The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berkley English The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berkley Irish The birch tree meadow. Also see Barclay and Burke. Berlyn German Son of Berl. See also Burl. Bernard English Strong as a bear. See also Bjorn. Bernard German Brave as a bear Bernardo German Brave as a bear Bernardo Spanish Strong as a bear. Bernardyn German Brave as a bear Bernd German Brave as a bear Berne English Variant of Bernard - strong as a bear. Berne German Bear Bernhard German Brave as a bear Bernie Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Berniefacio Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bernlak Arthurian Legend The Green Knight Bernon German Brave as a bear Berowalt German Mighty as a bear Berrett Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Berrin German Bear Bersules Arthurian Legend A knight Bert English Glorious; Illustrious. Berthold German Bright ruler Bertie English Variant of Bert - industrious. Bertin English Variant of Bert - industrious. Berto Spanish Intelligent Berton English From the fortified town Bertram Arthurian Legend A knight Bertram English Bright raven Bertram German Glorious raven. Bertrand French Intelligent; Glorious raven. Berwick English From the barley grange Berwyk English From the barley grange Bestandan Anglo-Saxon Stands beside Besyrwan Anglo-Saxon Ensnares Beth Scottish Lively Betlic Anglo-Saxon Splendid Betzalel Hebrew In God's shadow Bevan Celtic Young soldier Beverley English From the beaver meadow Bevin Celtic Young soldier Bevis French From Beauvais Bevyn Celtic Young soldier Bhaic Scottish Bank Bhaltair Scottish Strong fighter Bhradain Scottish Salmon Bhraghad Scottish From the upper part Bhreac Scottish Speckled Bhric Scottish Speckled Biast Scottish Beast Bick English From the hewer's ford Bickford English From the hewer's ford Bicoir Arthurian Legend Father of Arthur BidziilNative American He is strong (Navajo) Biecaford English From the hewer's ford Biford English Lives at the river crossing Bilagaana Native American White person (Navajo) BillEnglish Nickname for William - resolute protector - often used as an independent name. Billie English Nickname for William resolute protector - often used as an independent name. Billy English Nickname for William - resolute protector - often used as an independent name. Bimisi Native American Slippery Binah Hebrew Understanding Bing German From the kettle shaped hollow Binge German From the kettle shaped hollow Bink English Lives at the bank Binyamin Hebrew Ploughman Birch English Bright; shining; the birch tree. Birche English Birch Bird English Bird BirdeEnglish Bird Birdhil English From the bird hill Birdhill English From the bird hill BirdoswaldAnglo-Saxon From Birdoswald Birk English Birch tree Birk Scottish From a birch tree Birkett English Lives at the birch headland Birkey English From the birch tree island Birkhead English Lives at the birch headland Birkhed English Lives at the birch headland BirleyEnglish From the cattle shed on the meadow Birney English Lives on the brook island Biron English Surname used as a given name. Biron was the name of a character in Shakespeare's Loves Labours Lost. Birr Irish From Birr BirtelEnglish From the bird hill Birtle English From the bird hill Bishop English Overseer Bitanig English From the preserving land Bittan German Desire Bitten German Desire Bizhan Persian A character in Shahnameh (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bjorn Norway/Scandinavian pronounced "Bee-yurn", or americanized as "Bay-orn". (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Black English Dark BladeEnglish Wealthy glory Bladen Unknown Combination of Blake and Landen (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BlaecEnglish Black or white Blaecleah English From the dark meadow Blaed English Wealthy glory Blaeey English Blond Blagdan English From the dark valley BlagdenEnglish From the dark valley Blagdon English From the dark valley Blaiden English (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Blaine English Surname of uncertain meaning. Blaine Irish Thin Surname. Blaine Scottish Surname of uncertain meaning. Blaine Celtic Slender BlaineyCeltic Slender Blair Celtic From tbe plain BlairIrish From the fields Blair Scottish Peat moss BlaisFrench Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blaisdell French Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blaise Arthurian Legend A cleric BlaiseEnglish Stutters Blaise French Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. BlaizeFrench Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blake English Black or white Blake Scottish Dark; dark-haired. Can also mean the reverse -fair; pale. Blakeman Blakeley English From the dark meadow Blakely English From the dark meadow BlakemoreEnglish From the dark moor Blakey English Blond Blanco Spanish Blond Blandford English Gray haired Blane Celtic Slender Blane English Variant of Blaine. Blane Scottish Variant of Blaine. Blaney English Variant of Blaine. Blaney Scottish Variant of Blaine. Blanford English Gray haired Blar Irish From the fields Blas Spanish Stutters Blase French Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blathma Irish Flower Blaydon English loving, joyish (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Blayke English Attractive; Dark; Form of Blake (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Blayne Celtic Slender Blayne English Twin Blayne Scottish Variant of Blaine. Blayney Celtic Slender Blayze French Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blayze American A spitfire. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Blaze French Lisp; stutter. Blaise Pascal was a brilliant seventeenth century child prodigy; mathematician; scientist and philosopher who invented the calculating machine and hydraulic press before dying at age thirty-nine. Blaze English Stutters Blian Irish Thin Bliant Arthurian Legend Healer Bliss Anglo-Saxon Happy Bliss English Happy Bly British (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Blyth English Merry Blythe English Merry Boarte Arthurian Legend Son of Arthur Boas Hebrew Swift Boaz Hebrew Swift BobEnglish Abbreviation of Robert. Bobbie English Abbreviation of Robert. Bobby English Abbreviation of Robert. BocEnglish Male deer Bocleah English Lives at the buck meadow Bocley English Lives at the buck meadow Boda English Herald Bodaway Native American Fire maker BodenAnglo-Saxon Messenger Boden Celtic Blond BodhiBuddhist Enlightenment and a monk in training (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bodwyn Arthurian Legend Brother of Mark Body Celtic Blond Boeden Ukranian From the name Bogden or Bohden meaning Gift From God (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Boell German Hill dweller. BogartGerman Bowstring Bogdan Hebrew Gift from God Bogohardt German Bowstring Bohannon Irish Son of Owen. Bohdan Hebrew Gift from God Bohort Arthurian Legend Uncle of Arthur Bokamoso Unknown Future (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Boldizsar Syrian Protected by god (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BoltonEnglish From the manor farm Bond English Tied to the land Bondig English Free Bonginkosi Unknown To thank God for anything that one goes through in life - weather good or bad (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BonifaceAnglo-Saxon Name of a saint Bonifacio Spanish Benefactor Bonifaco Spanish Benefactor Bonnar Irish Debonair (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Boone English Good; a blessing. American frontier hero Daniel Boone. BooneFrench Good; a blessing. American frontier hero Daniel Boone. Booth English Lives in a hut Boothe English Lives in a hut Borak Arabic The lightning. Al Borak was the legenday magical horse that bore Muhammad from earth to the seventh heaven. Bordan Anglo-Saxon From the boar valley BordenAnglo-Saxon From the boar valley Borden English From the boar valley Borre Arthurian Legend Son of Arthur BorsArthurian Legend Uncle of Arthur Bort English Fortified. Bosworth English Lives at the cattle enclosure Botewolf English Herald wolf Both Scottish From the stone house Bothain Scottish From the stone house Bothan Scottish From the stone house Bothe English Lives in a hut Botolf English Herald wolf BotwolfEnglish Herald wolf Boulus Arabic Arabic form of Paul Bourke English Fortified hill. See also Berkley. Bourn English From the brook Bourne English From the brook Bowden Anglo-Saxon Messenger Bowden Celtic Blond Bowdyn Anglo-Saxon Messenger Bowdyn Celtic Blond Bowen Celtic Son of Owen Bowie Irish Surname. Bowyn Celtic Son of Owen Boyce French Lives near the wood. Boyce English Lives near the wood. BoydScottish Blonde; fair-haired. Boyd Celtic Blond Boyden Anglo-Saxon Messenger Boyden Celtic Blond Boyet Gullible (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Boynton Celtic From tbe white river Boynton Irish From the town by the river Boyn Bple English Cup bearer Bracken Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brad English From the broad valley Bradaigh Irish Spirited Bradan English From the broad valley Bradbourne English From the broad brook BradburnEnglish From the broad brook Bradd English Broad; wide. Braddock English broad-spreading oak. Braddon English Broad hillside. Braddon Irish Broad hillside. BradenEnglish Broad hillside. Braden Scottish Salmon BradenIrish Broad hillside. Bradene English From the broad valley Bradey Irish Spirited. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bradford English From the broad ford Bradig English From tbe broad island Bradin Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bradleah English From tbe broad meadow Bradlee English English surnames related to Bradley Broad clearing in the wood. Note: This Database is Copyright Dogwood Technical Services Inc. 1995. BradleyEnglish Broad clearing in the wood. Bradly English From tbe broad meadow Bradon Irish Broad hillside. BradonEnglish Broad hillside. Bradshaw English English surnames related to Bradley Broad clearing in the wood. BradwellEnglish From the broad spring Brady English From tbe broad island Brady Irish Spirited; Broad. Bradyn English From the broad valley Braeden English Broad hillside. Braeden Irish Broad hillside. Braeden Celtic Dark valley. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BraedonEnglish Broad hillside. Braedon Irish Broad hillside. Braelin Irish (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Braelon American Combination of Braydon, Lynn (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Braemwiella English From the bramble bush spring Braiden English, Irish Variation of Braden; From the Broad Valley Braidon Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brainard English Bold raven Brainerd English Bold raven Braison Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Braleah English From the hillslope meadow Bralynn Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bram Irish Irish form of Abraham Bram Scottish Bramble; a thicket of wild gorse. Abbreviation of Abraham and Abram. Bram Stoker was author of Dracula. Bram English Bramble; a thicket of wild gorse. Abbreviation of Abraham and Abram. Bram Stoker was author of Dracula. Bramley Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bramwell English From the bramble bush spring BranArthurian Legend Father of Caradoc or Caradawc Bran Celtic Raven Brand English Proud Brand German Fiery torch; beacon. Also a variant of Brandon. Brandt: (German) Fiery torch; beacon. Brandan Irish Name of a saint Brandan Celtic Sword Brandan English Beacon on the hill or gorse-covered hill. Branddun English From the beacon hill BrandeisGerman Dwells on a burned clearing Brandeles Arthurian Legend A knight Brandelis Arthurian Legend A knight Branden English Beacon on the hill or gorse-covered hill. Brandin English Beacon on the hill or gorse-covered hill. Brandon English From the beacon hill Brandubh Irish Black raven Branduff Irish Black raven BrandynEnglish Beacon on the hill or gorse-covered hill. BranhardEnglish Bold raven Branigan Irish Surname. BrannCeltic Raven Brannan Irish Variant of Brandon. Brannen Irish Variant of Brandon. Brannon Irish Variant of Brandon. Branor Arthurian Legend A knight Bransan Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Branson Irish Variant of Brandon. Brant English Proud; Variant of Brand. Mohawk Indian Joseph Brant was a renowned strategist who fought for the British during the American Revolution; and a devout scholar who translated Christian religious works into his native Indian tongue. Brantley English Proud Branton English Variant of Brand. Mohawk Indian Joseph Brant was a renowned strategist who fought for the British during the American Revolution; and a devout scholar who translated Christian religious works into his native Indian tongue. BrantsonEnglish Variant of Brand. Mohawk Indian Joseph Brant was a renowned strategist who fought for the British during the American Revolution; and a devout scholar who translated Christian religious works into his native Indian tongue. Braoin Irish Sadness Brarn Celtic Raven Brasen American Gods Gift (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BRASHAWN Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BrasilCeltic Battle Braun German (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Braw)eigh English From the hillslope meadow Brawley English From the hillslope meadow BraxstonUnknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BraxtonAnglo-Saxon (Submitted by Babies Online Member)(Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brayan Scottish Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BraydenEnglish Broad hillside. Brayden Irish Broad hillside. Braydin Old English (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Braydon English Broad hillside. BraydonIrish Broad hillside. Braylen Unknown There is no meaning to my knowledge (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Braylin Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Braylon Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Braylyn Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brayton English (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Breac Scottish Speckled Breanainn Celtic Sword Breandan Celtic Sword Breandan Irish Prince Breasal Irish Pain Brecc Anglo-Saxon Name of a king Brecken Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Breckin Celtic/Gaelic Freckled (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bredbeddle Arthurian Legend The Green Knight Bredon Celtic Sword Breen Irish Sadness Brehm Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brehus Arthurian Legend A knight Bren German Flame Brendan Irish Prince. Well known Irish playwright and wit Brendan Behan. Brendan Celtic Raven Brendan German Flame Brenden Irish Prince. Variant of Brendan. Brendin Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brendis German Flame Brendon Irish Prince. Variant of Brendan. Brendt Celtic Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brendt English Hilltop. Variant of Brent. BrendynCeltic Little Raven (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brenius Arthurian Legend A supposed king of Britain Brenn Irish Prince. Variant of Brendan. BrennanCeltic Raven Brennan Irish Little drop; Prince. Variant of Brendan. Brennen Irish Prince. Variant of Brendan. Brenner Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brennin Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brennon Irish Prince. Variant of Brendan. BrennusArthurian Legend A supposed king of Britain Brent English From the steep hill Brent Celtic Hilltop. BrentanEnglish From the steep hill Brenten English Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brenten Celtic Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brentley Celtic Hilltop. Variant of Brent. BrentleyEnglish Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brently Celtic Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brently English Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Brenton English Hilltop. Variant of Brent. BrentonCeltic Hilltop. Variant of Brent. Breri Arthurian Legend A messenger Breslin Irish Surname. Bressal Celtic Battle Bret Celtic A Breton Bret English Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). BrettCeltic A Breton Brett English Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). Bretton Scottish Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). BreuseArthurian Legend A knight Brewster English One who brews ale. See also Webster. Brewstere English Brewer breyland Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brian Celtic In use in England since the Middle Ages. Possibly connected with the Irish word for Hill, thus He ascends. Also some texts define it as Strong. 10th century Brian Boru was a high king and great national hero of Ireland. Briant Celtic Strong; He ascends. 10th century Brian Boru was a high king and great national hero of Ireland. Briar Irish (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brice French From Brieuxtown Brice Scottish Speckled Brice Celtic Swift Brice Anglo-Saxon Son of a nobleman Brice English A given name of medieval origin. Brick English Bridge. Brickman English Bridge. Bricriu Celtic The poison tongued Bridger English Lives at tbe bridge BrienCeltic He ascends. 10th century Brian Boru was a high king and great national hero of Ireland. Brier Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brigbam English Lives by the bridge Briggebam English Lives by the bridge BriggereEnglish Lives at tbe bridge Brigham English Bridge. Brighton English Covered bridge. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brighton French Troops or brigade. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brik English Bridge. Briley English Noble, Strong, cleared meadow (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brinton English From Brinton Brion Celtic He ascends. 10th century Brian Boru was a high king and great national hero of Ireland. Brittain English Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). Brittan English Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). Britton English Brit. A native of Brittany: (France) or Britain: (England). Broc English Badger Broc Scottish Badger Brochan Scottish Broken Brock English Badger; Variant of Brook. Brock German Variant of Brook. BrockAustralia Stong (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brockley English From the badger meadow BrocleahEnglish From tbe badger meadow Brocleigh English From the badger meadow Brocly English From the badger meadow Brodan Unknown Cowboy (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Broden Scottish Reference to Castle Brodie in Scotland. Broderic Scottish Brother. BroderickEnglish From the broad ridge Broderick Irish Surname. Broderick Scottish Brother. Broderik English From the broad ridge Brodey Scottish Second son (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Brodie Scottish From Brodie Brodiey American (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Brodric Scottish Brother. Brodrick Scottish Brother. Brodrig English From the broad ridge Brodrik English From the broad ridge Brody Irish From the muddy place. Surname. Brody Scottish Reference to Castle Brodie in Scotland. Broehain Scottish Broken Broga Anglo-Saxon Terror Brogan Anglo-Saxon Terror Broin Celtic Raven Brok English Badger Bromleah English From the broom covered meadow Bromleigh English From the broom covered meadow Bromley English From the broom covered meadow Bromly English From the broom covered meadow BronAnglo-Saxon Brown or dark Brone Irish Sorrowful Bronson German Brown's son. Bronson Anglo-Saxon Son of the dark man Bronson English Brown's son. BrookEnglish Lives by the stream Brooke English Lives by the stream Brooks English Son of Brooke Brookson English Son of Brooke Brooksone English Son of Brooke Brougher English Lives at the fortress BroughtonEnglish From the fortress town Brown English Dark skinned Bruce English Surname since medieval times; now a common given name. Folklore tale of 14th century Robert King of Scotland: (the Bruce) who learned the value of perseverance from watching a spider spin a web. Bruce French From Brys BruceScottish Surname since medieval times; now a common given name. Folklore tale of 14th century Robert King of Scotland: (the Bruce) who learned the value of perseverance from watching a spider spin a web. Bruhier Arabic Name of a Sultan Brun Anglo-Saxon Brown or dark Brun English Dark skinned BrunelleFrench Dark haired Bruno German Brown Brunon German Brown Bryan English Popular variant of Brian. BryanCeltic Strong Bryan Arthurian Legend Lord of Pendragon Bryant Celtic Strong Bryant English Popular variant of Brian. Bryant French He ascends. Bryce Scottish Speckled; Surname form of Brice. Bryce Anglo-Saxon Son of a nobleman Bryce Celtic Swift Brycen Scottish Variant of Bryce. Bryceton Scottish Variant of Bryce. BrychanWelsh (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BrydgerEnglish Lives at tbe bridge Bryen Unknown Variant of Bryan. (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Bryer Canadian Gentle and sweet. (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bryggere English Lives at tbe bridge Brylon Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) BryneIrish Surname. Bryon English Popular variant of Brian. Brys French From Brys Bryson Scottish Variant of Bryce. Bryston Scottish Variant of Bryce. BrytonEnglish The Sun (Submitted by Babies Online Member)Bssil Celtic Battle Buach Irish Victorious Buagh Irish Victorious Bubba German Boy (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Buchanan Scottish From the cannon's seat Buck English Male deer Buckley Irish Boy Buckley English Variant of Buck; male goat or deer. Bud English Brother. Nickname used since medieval times. Budak Unknown Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Budd English Herald Buddy English Herald Buinton Spanish Born fifth Buiron French From the cottage Bundy English Free Burbank English Lives on the castle's hill Burcet French From the little stronghold Burch English Birch Burchard English Strong as a castle Burdett English Surname used as a given name. Burdett French Surname used as a given name. BurdetteEnglish Surname used as a given name. Burdette French Surname used as a given name. Burdon English Lives at the castle Bureig English Lives on the brook island BurelFrench Reddish brown haired Burford English Lives at the castle ford Burgeis English Lives in town BurgessEnglish Lives in town Burgess Celtic Citizen BurghardEnglish Strong as a castle Burghere English Lives at the fortress Burgin Scotch Irish (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Burgtun English From the fortress town Burhan Arabic To have courage (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Burhardt German Strong as a castle Burhbank English Lives on the castle's hill BurhdonEnglish Lives at the castle Burhford English Lives at the castle ford Burhleag English Lives at the castle's meadow Burhtun English From the fortified town Burke English Fortified hill. See also Berkley. Burkett French From the little stronghold Burkette Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Burkhart German Strong as a castle Burkly Unknown Unknwon (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Burl English Cup bearer Burle English Fortified. See also Berlyn. Burleigh English Lives at the castle's meadow. Fortified. See also Berlyn. Burley English Lives at the castle's meadow Burlin German Son of Berl. See also Burl. Burly English Lives at the castle's meadow Burn English From the brook Burnard English Variant of Bernard strong as a bear. Burnard German Variant of Bernard strong as a bear. Burne Irish Bear; brown. Burne English From the brook Burneig English Lives on the brook island Burnell English Variant of Bernard strong as a bear. Burnell French Reddish brown haired Burnell German Variant of Bernard strong as a bear. Burnell Irish Bear; brown. Burnette English Bear; brown. Burnette Irish Bear; brown. Burney English Lives on the brook island Burney Irish Bear; brown. Burns English Son of Byrne Burrell English Fortified. See also Berlyn. Burrell French Reddish BursoneEnglish Son of Byrne Burt English Glorious BurtonEnglish From the fortified town Buster Unknown (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Butch Unknown Manly (Submitted by Babies Online Member) Butrus Arabic Arabic form of Peter Byford English Lives at the river crossing Byme Irish Bear; brown. Byme English Bear; brown. Byram English From the cattle yard ByrdEnglish Bird Byreleah English From the cattle shed on the meadow Byrne English From the brook Byrnes English Son of Byrne Byron English Bear Byron French From the cottage Byrtel English From the bird hillGIRLS:BaileyFrenchPublic ServantBambiItalianChildBarbara, BarbraLatin, GreekStranger, Foreign WomanBathshebaHebrewA PledgeBattistaGreekThe BaptizerBeataLatinBlessedBeatrice, BeatrixLatinBringer of JoyBeckyHebrewThe EnsnarerBelindaLatin, Spanish, ItalianBeautiful, SerpentineBelle, BellaFrenchBeautifulBenettaLatinThe BlessedBenitaLatinThe BlessedBerdineTeutonicBright MaidenBernadetteFrenchStrong and Brave, Brave as a Bear, Feminine for BernardBerniceGreekBringer of VictoryBertha, BertaGermanBright or GloriousBertinaGermanBright, ShiningBerylGreekGreen GemstoneBessHebrewConsecrated to GodBeth, BethanyHebrewWorshiper of GodBethesdaHebrewHouse of MercyBettinaHebrewConsecrated to GodBeulahHebrewShe who is to be marriedBeverlyOld EnglishFrom a Beaver MeadowBiancaItalianWhiteBlaineIrishThinBlairScottishDweller of the PlainBlancheFrenchWhite or FairBlendaTeutonicDazzlingBlytheOld EnglishFree SpiritBoChinesePreciousBonnibelLatinGood & BeautifulBonnieLatinFair, LovelyBrandi, BrandyEnglish, DutchBurnt Wine, Variant of the beverage name used as a given nameBreckenCeltic, GaelicFreckledBrendaEnglishFlameBrendaScandinavianBlazing SwordBrianna, BrianaIrishStrong, High, NobleBridget, Bridgit, BritIrish GaelicStrongBreezySpanishFrom Briseis, Achilles Love From "The Iliad"Brittany, Brittny, BritniLatin, EnglishFrom BritainBrookeOld EnglishThe BrookBrunhildeTeutonicBattle Maid


what does harmony ential in Islamic( if appliable) how can people achieve harmony?

wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله‎), or, "I testify that there is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed. The five daily ritual prayers are called ṣalāh or ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة). Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory but flexibility in the timing specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Quran. The prayers are done in direction of the Ka'bah. The act of supplicating is referred to as dua. A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers are called masjid jāmi (مَسْجِد جَامِع‎, 'congregational mosque'). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. The Masjid an-Nabawi ('Prophetic Mosque') in Medina, Saudi Arabia, was also a place of refuge for the poor. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets. The means used to signal the prayer time is a vocal call called the adhan. Zakāt (Arabic: زكاة‎, zakāh, 'alms') is a means of welfare in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it in order to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to supererogatory charity, known as Sadaqah) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty." Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.Sadaqah means optional charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity. Both the Quran and the hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people, and have urged the Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity. The Quran says: Those who spend their wealth in charity day and night, secretly and openly—their reward is with their Lord. One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that God expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly. Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished. Another kind of charity in Islam is waqf, meaning perpetual religious endowment. Fasting (Arabic: صوم‎, ṣawm) from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to after sunset during the month of Ramadan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, develop self-control and restraint and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts must be compensated for later. The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج‎), has to be performed during the first weeks of the twelfth Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the footsteps of Abraham; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil recounting Abraham's actions; then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham; then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, while she was looking for water for her son Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. Another form of pilgrimage, umrah, is supererogatory and can be undertaken at any time of the year. The Quran refers to Islamic Pilgrimage in various places often describing the rites and special rulings which apply when undertaking Hajj. Muslims recite and memorize the whole or part of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (tajweed) has been described as an excellent act of worship. Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of Ramadan. In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ('memorizer') who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day. Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers. Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories: mandatory (Fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (Mubah), abhorred (Makruh), and prohibited (haram). Thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwas) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law. In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th-century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify Sharia. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights. Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacredotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Arabic: علماء‎) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (مفتي‎) and often issues legal opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه‎). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah, and mawlawi. Imam (إمام‎) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services. A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب‎). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili madhahib. Each differ in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ('principles of jurisprudence'). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhhab. The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad. To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade, discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (i.e. usury; Arabic: riba). Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable. Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.The taking of land belonging to others is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury and the revival of interest-based economies has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then, in AD 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-Mal ("House of Wealth"), which was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-Maal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, continuing through the Umayyad period, and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child support and pensions. Jihad means 'to strive or struggle [in the way of God]'. In its broadest sense, it is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the Devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined. Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection. When used without any qualifier, jihad is understood in its military form. Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad," which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD. Sufism (Arabic: تصوف‎, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars defined Tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice.Religiosity of early Sufi ascetics, such as Hasan al-Basri, emphasized fear to fail God's expectations of obedience, in contrast to later and more prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, whose religiosity is based on love towards God. For that reason, some academic scholars refuse to refer to the former as Sufis. Nevertheless, Hasan al-Basri is often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis in Sufi traditions and his ideas were later developed by the influential theologian Al-Ghazali. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.Popular devotional practices such as veneration of Sufi saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of Wahhabism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis leading to deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations. Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in Central Asia and South Asia; the Barelvi movement is Sufi influenced Sunni Islam with over 200 million followers, largely in South Asia. Sufism is also prominent is Central Asia, where different orders are the main religious sources, as well as in African countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.Mystical interpretations of Islam have also been developed by Ismaili Shias, as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy. In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor. Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children. Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous. Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam. However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four, per Surah 4 Verse 3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears. With regard to inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the Shahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is appropriately bathed by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan. Placing the body on a bier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial. Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu 'alaykum" ('peace be unto you'), saying bismillah ('in the name of God') before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food. In a Muslim society, various social service activities are performed by the members of the community. As these activities are instructed by Islamic canonical texts, a Muslim's religious life is seen incomplete if not attended by service to humanity. In fact, In Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values. Quran 2:177 is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare.Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, sick people, the old, and minorities have been defined in Islam. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation. A two-fold approach is generally prescribed with regard to duty to relatives: keeping good relations with them, and offering them financial help if necessary. Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam teaches Muslims to treat neighboring people in the best possible manner and not to cause them any difficulty. Concerning orphaned children, the Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment to them while urging kindness and justice towards them. It also rebukes those who do not honor and feed orphaned children. The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and good character come within the sphere of the moral guidelines. In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a believer and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshipping. One typical Islamic teaching on morality is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence. The Quran says: "Good and evil cannot be equal. Respond ˹to evil˺ with what is best, then the one you are in enmity with will be like a close friend." Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only in good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices. The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are justice, forgiveness, righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety. Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, modesty (haya) and humility, decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness, patience, truthfulness, anger management, and sincerity of intention. As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character." In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but also an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances. The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice. About modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: "Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty." Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets. Sunni and Shia sectarian divide also effects intergovernmental Muslim relations such as between Saudi Arabia and Iran. Islamic tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets, sent by God to the rest of mankind. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported receiving revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel while he was meditating in a cave. Muhammad's companions memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.During this time, Muhammad, while in Mecca, preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam were the poor, foreigners and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi who was black. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ('emigration') in AD 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.The Constitution established: the security of the community religious freedoms the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons) the security of women stable tribal relations within Medina a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict parameters for exogenous political alliances a system for granting protection of individuals a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624—a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively. The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time. Abu Bakr's death in 634 about two years after he was elected which resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under the caliphs, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into parts of the Persian and Byzantine territories.When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. This led to the first civil war (the "First Fitna") over who should be caliph. Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph Hasan ibn Ali signed a peace treaty, abdicating to Mu'awiyah, beginning the Umayyad dynasty, in return that he not name his own successor. These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia. Mu'awiyah appointed his son, Yazid I, as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "Second Fitna" broke out, where Husayn ibn Ali was killed at the Battle of Karbala, a significant event in Shia Islam. Sunni Islam and Shia Islam thus differ in some respects.The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabi'un, followed by the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, "The Seven Fuqaha of Medina", headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.The first Muslim states independent of a unified Islamic state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, the major Sunni hadith collections were compiled by scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim while major Shia hadith collections by scholars such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh were also compiled. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i, while the Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law and introduced its first methods by a synthesis between proto-rationalism of Iraqi jurisprudence and the pragmatic approach of the Hejaz traditions, in his book ar-Risālah. He also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. However, Islamic law would not be codified until 1869. In the 9th century Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the Tafsir al-Tabari. During its expansion through the Samanid Empire, Islam was shaped by the ethno-cultural and religious pluralism by the Sogdians, paving the way for a Persianized rather than Arabized understanding of Islam.Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasised poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf or Sufism.By the end of the 9th century, Ismaili Shias spread in Iran, whereupon the city of Multan became a target of activistic Sunni politics. In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.Abbasid Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of Sunni scholastic theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic. Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, ibn Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months. Other branches of kalam were the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari and Maturidi founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi. With the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate into the Sasanian Empire, Islam adapted many Hellenistic and Persian concepts, imported by thinkers of Iranian or Turkic origin. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed. Avicenna pioneered the science of experimental medicine, and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works, The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in Europe. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology. In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr. The Persian poet Ferdowsi wrote his epic poem Shahnameh. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Islamic law schools. Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation, were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist". The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. It is argued that the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and that Al-Jahiz proposed a theory of natural selection.While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline since the reign of Al-Wathiq (842–847) and Al-Mu'tadid (892–902), the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258. During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the Tulunid and the Ghaznavid dynasty. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by Turkic slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the Samanid Empire.Two Turkish tribes, the Karahanids and the Seljuks, converted to Islam during the 10th century. They were later subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role for the revival of Sunnism, after which Shia increased its influences. The Seljuk military leader Alp Arslan financially supported sciences and literature and established the Nezamiyeh university in Baghdad.During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song dynasty. After Mongol conquests and the final decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Mongol Empire enabled cross cultural exchanges through Asia allowing to practise any religion as long as they do not interfere with the interests of the ruling Khan. The new social and political tolerance brought by the Ilkhanate, which converted to Sunni Islam and ruled by the grandson of Genghis Khan, allowing science and arts to flourish even in aspects priorly forbidden and extending Middle Eastern influence up to China. In scholasticism, Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328) did not accepted the Mongol's conversion to Sunnism, worried about the integrity of Islam and tried to establish a theological doctrine to purify Islam from its alleged alterings. Unlike his contemporary scholarship, who relied on traditions and historical narratives from early Islam, Ibn Taymiyya's methodology was a mixture of selective use of hadith and a literal understanding of the Quran. He rejected most philosophical approaches of Islam and proposed a clear, simple and dogmatic theology instead. Another major characteristic of his theological approach emphazises the significance of a Theocratic state: While the prevailing opinion held that religious wisdom was necessary for a state, Ibn Taymiyya regarded political power as necessary for religious excellence. He further rejected many hadiths circulating among Muslims during his time and relied only on Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim repeatedly to foil Asharite doctrine. Feeling threatened by the Crusaders as well as by the Mongols, Ibn Taymiyya stated it would be obligatory for Muslims to join a physical jihad against non-Muslims. This not only including the invaders, but also the heretics among the Muslims, including Shias, Asharites and "philosophers", who were blamed by Ibn Taymiyya for the deterioration of Islam. The Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303) served as a significant turning point. Nevertheless, his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. He was repeatedly accused of blasphemy by anthropomorphizing God and his disciple Ibn Kathir distanced himself from his mentor and negated the anthropomorphizations, but simultaneously adhered to the same anti-rationalistic and hadith oriented methodology. This probably influenced his exegesis on his Tafsir, which discounted much of the exegetical tradition since then. However, the writings of Ibn Taymiyya became important sources for Wahhabism and 21st century Salafi theology, just as Tafsir Ibn Kathir also became highly rewarded in modern Salafism.The Timurid Renaissance was observed in the Timurid Empire based in Central Asia ruled by the Timurid dynasty, a phenomenal growth in the fields of arts and sciences, covering both eastern and western world. Outstanding throughout the stages of the Renaissance were the inventions of numerous devices and the constructions of Islamic learning centre, mosques, necropolis and observatories. Herat city for example matched with Florence, the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance, as the focal point of a cultural rebirth. Such aspects were seen to be strongly influenced across Islamic Gunpowder empires, mainly in Mughal India.Islam spread with Muslim trade networks, Sufi orders activity and conquests of the Gunpowder Empires that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago. Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems." Throughout this expanse, Islam blended with local cultures everywhere, as illustrated when the prophet Muhammad appeared in Hindu epics and folklore. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study. The Turkish Muslims incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism, which to this date differs Turkish synthesis of Islam from other Muslim societies, and became a part of a new Islamic interpretation, although Shamanistic influences already occurred during the Battle of Talas (752). Strikingly, Shamans were never mentioned by Muslim Heresiographers. One major change was the status of women. Unlike Arabic traditions, the Turkic traditions hold women in higher regard in society. The Turks must have also found striking similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practises. Shamanism also influenced orthodox Muslims who subscribed in Anatolia, Central-Asia and Balkans, producing Alevism. As a result, many Shaman traditions were perceived as Islamic, with beliefs such as sacred nature, trees, animals and foreign nature spirits remaining today.The Ottoman Caliphate, under the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire, was the last caliphate of the late medieval and the early modern era. It is important to note, that the following Islamic reign by the Ottomans was strongly influenced by a symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism since the beginning. According to Ottoman historiography, the legitimation of a ruler is attributed to Sheikh Edebali who, accordingly, interpreted a dream of Osman Gazi as God's legitimation of his reign. Since Murad I's conquest of Edirne in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire. During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as Selim I, who through conquering and unification of Muslim lands, became the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques in Mecca and Medina, and strengthening their claim to caliphate in the Muslim world. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia succeeded in 1492. In Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims, and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the Zaydis, named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis. The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi and Ismaili sects. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.In the Indian Subcontinent, during the rule of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji in Bengal, the Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aybak, emerged as India's first Islamic power, well noted for being one of the few states to repel an attack by the Mongols and enthroning one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana. The wealthy Islamic Bengal Sultanate was subsequently founded, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with". The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a direct descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan. The empire was briefly interrupted by the Suri Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri, who re-initiated the rupee currency system. The Mughals gained power during the reign of Akbar the Great and Jahangir. The reign of Shah Jahan observed the height of Indo-Islamic architecture, with notable monuments such as Taj Mahal and Jama Masjid, Delhi, while the reign of his son Aurangzeb saw the compilation of the Fatwa Alamgiri (most well organised fiqh manuscript) and witnessed the peak of the Islamic rule in India. Mughal India surpassed Qing China to become the world's largest economy, worth 25% of world GDP, the Bengal Subah signalling the proto-industrialization and showing signs of the Industrial revolution. After Mughal India's collapse, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia based economic and military policies i.e. Fathul Mujahidin, replaced Bengal ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal as South Asia's foremost economic territory. After Indian independence, the Nizams of Hyderabad remained as the major Muslim princely state until the Annexation of Hyderabad by the modern Republic of India. The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim-majority country with a major observatory by the twentieth century. By the 19th century the East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. During the 18th century Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab founded a military movement opposing the Ottoman Sultanate as an illegitimate rule, advising his fellows to return to the principles of Islam based on the theology of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. He was deeply influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim and condemned many traditional Islamic practices, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or Saints, as sin. During this period he formed an alliance with the Saud family, who founded the Wahhabi sect. This revival movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their ideology led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina. Many Arab nationalists, such as Rashid Rida, regarded the Caliphate as an Arab right taken away by the Turks. Therefore, they rebelled against the Ottoman Sultanate, until the Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. Concurrently Ibn Saud conquered Mecca, the "heartland of Islam", to impose Wahhabism as part of Islamic culture.At the end of the 19th century, Muslim luminaries such as Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Rida and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani sought to reconcile Islam with social and intellectual ideas of the Age of Enlightenment by purging Islam from alleged alterations and adhering to the basic tenets held during the Rashidun era. Due to their adherence to the Salafs they called themselves Salafiyya. However, they differ from the Salafi movement flourishing in the second half of the 20th century, which is rooted in the Wahhabi movement. Instead, they are also often called Islamic modernists. They rejected the Sunni schools of law and allowed Ijtihad.The Barelwi movement, founded in India, emphasises the primacy of Islamic law over adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to the prophet Muhammad. It grew from the writings of Ahmed Raza Khan, Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi, Shah Ahmad Noorani and Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi in the backdrop of an intellectual and moral decline of Muslims in British India. The movement was a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices, grew in response to the Deobandi movement. The movement is famous for the celebration of Mawlid and today, is spread across the globe with followers also in Pakistan, South Africa, United States, and United Kingdom among other countries.On 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his secular reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Ottoman Caliphate, the world's last widely recognized caliphate was no more and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic and the Directorate of Religious Affairs. Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914. Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as guest workers and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s. There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions. Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans, and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion. About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god. In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.Religiosity appears to be deepening worldwide. In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing increasingly common and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia has increased. With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility-rate of Muslims relative to other religious group." While the religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith". Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa. There is no verse in Quran or any authentic Hadith that corroborate denominations of Islam. However, all have been created by the adherents after the decease of the prophet. The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 85–90% of all Muslims, and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination. Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Further authorities regarding Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph as long they Arabic (اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ, al-ʿarabiyyah, [al ʕaraˈbijːa] (listen) or عَرَبِيّ‎, ʿarabīy, [ˈʕarabiː] (listen) or [ʕaraˈbij]) is a Semitic language that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living in the area bounded by Mesopotamia in the east and the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in Northwestern Arabia and in the Sinai Peninsula. The ISO assigns language codes to thirty varieties of Arabic, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā (اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ, "the purest Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ). Modern Standard Arabic is an official language of 26 states and 1 disputed territory, the third most after English and FrenchArabic is widely taught in schools and universities and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government and the media. Arabic, in its standard form, is the official language of 26 states, as well as the liturgical language of the religion of Islam, since the Quran and Hadith were written in Arabic. During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages—mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese and Catalan—owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and the long-lasting Arabic culture and language presence mainly in Southern Iberia during the Al-Andalus era. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words, many of which relate to agriculture and related activities, as a legacy of the Emirate of Sicily from the early-9th to late-11th centuries, while Maltese language is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet. The Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many other languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Maldivian, Pashto, Punjabi, Albanian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog, Sindhi, Odia and Hausa and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Persian in medieval times and languages such as English and French in modern times. Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims, and Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography. Arabic is usually, but not universally, classified as a Central Semitic language. It is related to languages in other subgroups of the Semitic language group (Northwest Semitic, South Semitic, East Semitic, West Semitic), such as Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Canaanite, Amorite, Ammonite, Eblaite, epigraphic Ancient North Arabian, epigraphic Ancient South Arabian, Ethiopic, Modern South Arabian, and numerous other dead and modern languages. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the emergence of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (jalas-) into a past tense. The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (yajlis-) into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a /t/ after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., -u for indicative, -a for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, -an or -anna for energetic). The development of an internal passive.There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of the northern Hejaz. These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor, Proto-Arabic. The following features can be reconstructed with confidence for Proto-Arabic: negative particles m * /mā/; lʾn */lā-ʾan/ to Classical Arabic lan mafʿūl G-passive participle prepositions and adverbs f, ʿn, ʿnd, ḥt, ʿkdy a subjunctive in -a t-demonstratives leveling of the -at allomorph of the feminine ending ʾn complementizer and subordinator the use of f- to introduce modal clauses independent object pronoun in (ʾ)y vestiges of nunation Arabia boasted a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic. Finally, on the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, Safaitic, and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are in fact early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic.Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic" (a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic) first emerged around the 1st century CE. Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat Al-Faw, in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced--epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel, and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the epitaph of the Lakhmid king Mar 'al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolves into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria (Zabad, Jabal 'Usays, Harran, Umm al-Jimaal). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an are referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "Classical Arabic". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra, most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Qur'an was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd, probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. The standardization of Classical Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya. By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world. Charles Ferguson's koine theory (Ferguson 1959) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.In around the 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus, the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism, pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. The Nahda cultural renaissance saw the creation of a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française, starting with the Arab Academy of Damascus (1918), which aimed to develop the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations. This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran, used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-ʻArab). Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era, especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages) in medieval and early modern Europe. This view though does not take into account the widespread use of Modern Standard Arabic as a medium of audiovisual communication in today's mass media—a function Latin has never performed. MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" (فُصْحَى‎ fuṣḥá) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the energetic mood) are almost never used in Modern Standard Arabic. Case distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script


What was the history of Islam during its first 100 years?

This was the golden period of not only of Islam also of whole humanity. The Muslim rulers (HALIFAH) give peace, education, Justice equally, and all happiness to mankind. The Islamic Golden Age or the Islamic Renaissance, is traditionally dated from the 9th to 13th centuries C.E., for 400 years but has been extended to the 15th century by recent scholarship. During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders in theIslamic worldcontributed to the arts,agriculture, economics,industry, law,literature,navigation,philosophy,sciences, sociology, andtechnology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent.Contents[hide] 1 Foundations 1.1 Ethics1.2 Institutions1.3 Polymaths2 Economy 2.1 Age of discovery2.2 Agricultural Revolution2.3 Market economy2.4 Industrial growth2.5 Labour2.6 Technology2.7 Urbanization3 Sciences 3.1 Scientific method3.2 Peer review3.3 Astronomy3.4 Chemistry3.5 Mathematics3.6 Medicine3.7 Physics3.8 Other sciences4 Other achievements 4.1 Architecture4.2 Arts4.3 Literature4.4 Music4.5 Philosophy5 End of the Golden Age 5.1 Mongol invasion and Turkic settlement5.2 Causes of decline6 Notes7 See also8 References9 External links[edit]FoundationsFurther information: Early reforms under Islam and Muslim conquests Age of the Caliphs Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632 Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries, Rashidun armiesestablished the Caliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. TheIslamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city Baghdad. The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became the unrivaled intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge. They established the "House of Wisdom" (Arabic:بيت الحكمة) in Baghdad, where scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim, sought to gather and translate all the world's knowledge into Arabic in the Translation Movement. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish,Persian, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Mesopotamian,Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations. Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[6]A major innovation of this period was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art ofpapermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper millsbeing built in the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even public libraries began to become established, including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to Europe in the 13th century.[7]Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the Indian subcontinent now has over 450 million followers), South-east Asia (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia, East Asia and South-east Asia.[8][9][edit]EthicsMain articles: Islamic ethics and Early reforms under IslamFurther information: Islamic democracy and Constitution of MedinaMany medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search forknowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history andphilosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas ofindividualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism.[10][11]Religious freedom, though society was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-culturalnetworks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries.[6] Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[12]"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be upon you and the blessings of God!"The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especiallypollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna,Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.[13] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the firstwaste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.[14][edit]InstitutionsFurther information: Madrasah, Bimaristan, Islamic astronomy, Sharia, Fiqh, and Islamic economics in the worldA number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital(which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[15] and psychiatric hospital,[16] the public library andlending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute[15] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times).[17]The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century.[18] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[19] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris WA 'l-ifttd("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.[20]By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books. In the whole al-Andalus, 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year.[21] The library of Cairo had two million books,[22] while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.[23] For instance, Jamil Ragip, anhistorian of science from McGill University, says that 'less than 5% of the available material has been studied.'[24] A Russian historian gives an idea of the numerical quantity of these manuscripts and works always findable:"The results of the Arab scholars' literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current... These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials"[25]A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.[26]Several fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions inIslamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the IslamicLafif." Other legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust(Waqf),[27][28] the agency and aval (Hawala),[29] and the lawsuit and medical peer review.[30] Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[20][edit]PolymathsAnother common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymathscholars, who were known as "Hakeems", each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later "Renaissance Men" (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period.[31][32] During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.[31] Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Latinized: Avicenna),al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd (Latinized: Averroes), al-Suyuti,[33] Geber,[34] Abbas Ibn Firnas,[35] Alhacen,[36] Ibn al-Nafis,[37] Ibn Khaldun,[38] al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, andNasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.[31][edit]Economy[edit]Age of discoveryMain article: Islamic geographySee also: Islamic economics in the world, Inventions in the Muslim world, Ibn Battuta, and Pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theoriesThe Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when theknowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Southwest Asian and North African traders and explorers (though mostly Muslims, some were also JewishRadhanites) who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[39] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[40] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.[39] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and theMaghreb may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean between the 9th and 14th centuries.[41][edit]Agricultural RevolutionMain article: Muslim Agricultural RevolutionThe valve-operatedreciprocating suction piston pumpwith crankshaft-connecting rodmechanism invented by al-Jazari in the 12th century.The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation inagriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution" or "Arab Agricultural Revolution".[42] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops fromIndia such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.[43] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops",[44]which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (seeIndustrial growth below), led to major changes in economy,population distribution, vegetation cover,[45] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of thelabour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[43]During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs andBerbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.[46]Muslims introduced cash cropping[47] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq.[43] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, containing accurate, precise detail.[48][edit]Market economyMain article: Islamic economics in the worldEarly forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[49] where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[50] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetaryareas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included early trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships(mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[47] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[51] trusts (waqf),startup companies,[52] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates,bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[53]and lawsuits.[30] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[54][55] Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[47]The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell oncommission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds ofkinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have been closer to proto-capitalism, some scholars have also found a number of parallels between Islamic economic jurisprudence and communism, including the Islamic ideas of zakat and riba.[56][edit]Industrial growthFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) introduced the experimental methodto chemistry. He established thechemical industry and perfumeryindustry. Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovativeindustrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[57] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[58] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills,stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to theMiddle East and Central Asia.[59] Muslim engineers also inventedcrankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[46] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour inancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[60]A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies,clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles,water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. Early large factorycomplexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century byEgyptian craftsmen in Greece.[61] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[40][edit]LabourFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - LabourThe labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[62] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[63] in the primary sector (asfarmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[64]Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[63]During the Arab slave trade, slaves were purchased on the frontiers of the Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed.[65][66][67] Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world.[68][69]Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensiveplantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century.[70]Slaves were also used for domestic work,[71] military service,[72] and civil administration.[73] Central andEastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Central Asiaand the Caucasus were often known as Mamluk.[74][edit]TechnologyMain articles: Inventions in the Muslim world, Muslim Agricultural Revolution, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineersThe programmable automata ofal-Jazari.A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, theBanū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallization,purification, oxidization, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis,frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.[75][edit]UrbanizationFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: UrbanizationAs urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets andneighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods[citation needed] to and from major commercial centres while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, military training grounds were found near a main gate.Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains,piped drinking water supplies,[76] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.[77] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries.[21]The average life expectancy in the lands under Islamic rule also experienced an increase, due to the Agricultural Revolution as well as improved medical care. In contrast to the average lifespan in the ancient Greco-Roman world (22-28 years),[78][79] the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate was more than 35 years.[80] The average lifespans of the Islamic scholarly class in particular was much higher: 84.3 years in 10th-11th century Iraq and Persia,[81] 72.8 years in the 11th century Middle East, 69-75 years in 11th century Islamic Spain,[82] 75 years in 12th century Persia,[83] and 59-72 years in 13th century Persia.[84] The Islamic Empire also experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, comparable to Athens' literacy in classical antiquity but on a larger scale.[85][edit]SciencesMain article: Islamic scienceFurther information: Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe, Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world, and List of Muslim scientistsThe traditional view of Islamic science was that it was chiefly a preserver and transmitter of ancient knowledge.[86] For example, Donald Lach argues that modern science originated in Europe as an amalgam of medieval technology and Greek learning.[87] These views have been disputed in recent times, with some scholars suggesting that Muslim scientists laid the foundations for modernscience,[88][89][90][91][92] for their development of early scientific methods and an empirical, experimentaland quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.[93] Some scholars have referred to this period as a "Muslim scientific revolution",[4][94][95][96] a term which expresses the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim scientific achievements,[97] and should not to be confused with the early modernEuropean Scientific Revolution leading to the rise of modern science.[98][99][100] Edward Grant argues that modern science was due to the cumulative efforts of the Hellenic, Islamic and Latin civilizations.[101][edit]Scientific methodFurther information: Islamic science: Scientific methodEarly scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered the pioneer of experimental physics.[93][102] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light raysentering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[103][104]Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[105] and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception[106][107] is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology.[108][edit]Peer reviewThe earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in theEthics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854-931) of al-Raha in Syria. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.[30] The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.[109][edit]AstronomyMain article: Islamic astronomyFurther information: Maragheh observatory, Islamic astrology, List of Muslim astronomers, and List of Arabic star namesPhoto taken from medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi(1236-1311), a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[4] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign ofCaliph al-Ma'mun,[110] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,[111] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning ofastrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[112] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology byAbū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[113] the use of exacting empiricalobservations and experimental techniques,[114] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[115] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[116] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather thanphilosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[4] the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotationby Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi's early hypothesis on "circular inertia."[117]Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.[91][118] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model inNicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,[119] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.[117][edit]ChemistryMain article: Alchemy (Islam)Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) is considered a pioneer of chemistry,[120][121] as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still, retort,[75]and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation,[122] liquefaction, crystallisation,purification, oxidisation and evaporation.[75]The study of traditional alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals were first refuted by al-Kindi,[123] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[124] Avicenna,[125] and Ibn Khaldun. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory ofhumorism false using an experimental method.[126] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[127]Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.[89][91][edit]MathematicsMain article: Islamic mathematicsAmong the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development ofalgebra and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī,[128][129] the invention of spherical trigonometry,[130] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus andproof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolic algebra byAbū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[131] and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus,cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. An Arabic manuscript describing the eye, dating back to the 12th century[edit]MedicineMain article: Islamic medicineFurther information: Islamic psychology, Bimaristan, and Ophthalmology in medieval IslamIslamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greekand Roman physicians Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Soranus, Celsusand Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[132][133][134]Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine, including anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology,pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences, physiology, surgery, etc. They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals,[135]including the first medical schools[136] and psychiatric hospitals.[137]Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.[138] Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles andsmallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen's humorism false.[126]Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery,[139] with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[140]as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette,retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[141] and bone saw.[75] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics.[140]Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine,[142] with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for introducing systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology,[143]the discovery of contagious disease, introduction of quarantine to limit their spread, introduction ofexperimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[144] randomized controlled trials,[145][146] efficacy tests,[147][148] and clinical pharmacology,[149] the first descriptions on bacteriaand viral organisms,[150] distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions,nervous ailments,[135] use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.[140]Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon.[151] In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.[152] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals.[153]Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology,[154] as he was the first to describe thepulmonary circulation[155] and coronary circulation,[156][157] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages."[158] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[159] and developed new systems of physiology andpsychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation,[160] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals,esophagus, stomach, etc.[161]Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming theskull can grow into tumors.[162] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[163] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[5][edit]PhysicsMain article: Islamic physicsThe study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[164] a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding oflight and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,[165] for initiating a scientific revolution in optics[166] and visual perception.[167]The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni,[168] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[169][170] and Avicenna.[171][172] The proportionality between force and acceleration, considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics" and foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[173] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[174] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[175] Ibn al-Haytham,[176] and al-Khazini.[177] Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment ofacceleration and his concept of impetus[178] was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna[171] and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle's Physics as well as the Neoplatonist tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.[179][edit]Other sciencesMain article: Islamic scienceFurther information: Islamic geography, Islamic psychology, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early IslamMany other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution,physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography andgeology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),[180] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī(a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences[181] such asdemography,[182] economics,[183] cultural history,[184] historiography[185] and sociology),[186] among others.[edit]Other achievements[edit]ArchitectureMain article: Islamic architectureThe Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under Mughal rule.Selimiye Mosque, built by Sinan in 1575. Edirne, Turkey.The Great Mosque of Xi'an in China was completed circa740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiralingminaret was constructed.The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress ofGranada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15-17th centuries. Blending Islamic and Hinduelements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his grandson Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age.In the Sunni Muslim Ottoman Empire massive mosques with ornate tiles and calligraphy were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque[edit]ArtsMain article: Islamic artFurther information: Islamic calligraphy, Arabesque, Iranian art, and Persian miniatureSee also: Islamic music, Arabic music, and Persian traditional musicAn Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Socrates(Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils.The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster-painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance. Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.[edit]LiteratureMain articles: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and Persian literatureThe most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian QueenScheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[187] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[187] "Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[188] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[189] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such asAladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller fromAleppo. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modernfantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[189] When L. Frank Baumproposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[190]Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history.Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the laterRomeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[191]Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy inPhilosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral childrenliving in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of ascience fiction novel.[159][192]Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation,futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explnations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[193]A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared byEdward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well asGerman and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[194][195][196][197] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[198] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story inRudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[199]Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: theHadith and the Kitab al-Miraj(translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[200] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peeleand William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazarand Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorishdelegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[201][edit]MusicThe lute was adopted from the Arab world. 1568 print. Main articles: Islamic music and Arabic musicA number of musical instruments used in Western music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: thelute was derived from the al'ud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from therebab, the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff,alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba(flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,[202]the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar fromsunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,[203] the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),[204] the shawm anddulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,[205] the gaitafrom the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,[206] the harp andzither from the qanun,[207] canon from qanun, geige (violin) fromghichak,[208] and the theorbo from the tarab.[209]A theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notationsuggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum(1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[210][211] See as well the gifted Ziryab(Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi').[edit]PhilosophyMain articles: Islamic philosophy and Early Islamic philosophyFurther information: Logic in Islamic philosophy, Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400), and List of Muslim philosophersSee also: Islamic theology, Avicennism, Averroism, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early IslamAverroes, an Arab Muslim polymath is the founder of theAverroism school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[212]Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas. This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of theAverroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[212] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[213]Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. Hisphilosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[214] condition of possibility,materialism,[215] and Molyneux's Problem.[216] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[217] Gottfried Leibniz,[197] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[218] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[219] and Samuel Hartlib.[198]Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonides[220][221] and Christianmedieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas[222] and René Descartes, who expressed similar ideas to that of al-Ghazali in Discourse on the Method.[223] However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[224]Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[186] and social philosophy.[edit]End of the Golden Age[edit]Mongol invasion and Turkic settlementAfter the Crusades from the West that resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 11th century, a new threat came from the East during the 13th century: the Mongol invasions. In 1206,Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered,[225] which may have been one of the reasons behind Hulagu Khan's sack of Baghdad in 1258.[226] The Mongols and Turks from Central Asia conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including bothChina in the east and parts of the old Islamic Caliphate and Persian Islamic Khwarezm, as well asRussia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a settled society to a nomadic one. On the other hand, due to the lack of a powerful leader after the Mongolian invasion and Turkish settlement, some local Turkish kingdoms appeared in the Islamic world and they were in war and fighting against each other for centuries. The most powerful kingdoms among them were the empire of Ottoman Turks, who became Sunni Muslims and the empire of Safavi Turks, who became Shia Muslims. Eventually, they invaded very wide parts of the Islamic world and entered in a competition and a series of bloody wars until the middle of seventeenth century.Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions were a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with revelation and blur the line between the two.[227]Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia and Anatoliaconverted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states. In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson ofTimur). By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end.[edit]Causes of declineFurther information: Islamic science: DeclineSee also: Great divergence and European miracle"The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way." - George Sarton , The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East'[228]Islamic civilization, which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced from the 12th century onwards, towards the end of the Abbassid rule. Despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century. Some scholars such as M. I. Sanduk believe that the declination began from around the 11th century and still continued after this.[229]Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline. The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European colonial empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors.[2]The North Africa's Islamic civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal.[230][231] TheBlack Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.[232]There was an increasing lack of tolerance of intellectual debate and freedom of thought, with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative philosophy, while polemic debates appear to have been abandoned in the 14th century. A significant intellectual shift in Islamic philosophy is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali's late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which lambasted metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of scripture, and was later criticized inThe Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions.[233] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile in Persia, due to the Mongol invasions and the plague, the average life expectancy of the scholarly class in Persia had declined from 72 years in 1209 to 57 years by 1242.[84]American economist Timur Kuran proposed an answer why economic development in the Middle East lagged that of the West: Islamic partnership law and inheritance law interacted to keep Middle Eastern enterprises small, never allowing the development of corporate forms.[234][235]Some scholars have come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries, with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Dinconsidered noteworthy examples.[236][237] This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra's transcendent theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, Al-Andalus and Maghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria andEgypt during his time.[2][edit]Notes^ Joel L. 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The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.^ Economic Scene; The decline of the Muslim Middle East, and the roots of resentment, can be traced to Islamic inheritance law., New York Times^ How Islamic Inheritance Law Impeded Development, National Center for Policy Analysis^ David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis, 74 (1983):531-555^ George Saliba, "Writing the History of Arabic Astronomy: Problems and Differing Perspectives (Review Article),Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116 (1996): 709-718.[edit]See alsoGolden age of Jewish culture in SpainIslamic contributions to Medieval Europe Latin translations of the 12th centuryIslamic studies Inventions in the Islamic worldIslamic scienceMuslim Agricultural RevolutionTimeline of science and technology in the Islamic worldList of Islamic studies scholars List of Muslim scientistsList of Arab scientists and scholarsList of Iranian scientists and scholarsMuslim conquests List of Muslim empiresGlobal empireArts Architecture • Art • Calligraphy • Literature • Music • Poetry • PotteryEconomics Economic Jurisprudence • Economic History • Islam and PovertyHistory Timeline • Historiography • Conquests • Golden Age • Agricultural Revolution •Economic History • Contributions to Medieval Europe • European RenaissancePhilosophy Early Philosophy • Modern Philosophy • Theology (Kalam) • Ethics • Logic • Metaphysics •Historiography • Sociology (Medieval Sociology)Science & Technology Timeline • Agricultural Revolution • Alchemy and Chemistry • Astronomy • Geography •Inventions • Mathematics • Medicine (Ophthalmology) • Physics • PsychologyOther fields Feminism • Jurisprudence • Law • Peace • Politics • Sufi Studies (Mysticism)[edit]ReferencesGaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review136 (4): 1231-1261Donald Routledge Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3,Routledge, ISBN 0415124107Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968Shoja-e-din Shafa, Rebirth (1995) (Persian Title: تولدى ديگر)*Shoja-e-din Shafa, After 1400 Years(2000) (Persian Title: پس از 1400 سال[hide] v • d • e Islamic studies