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This coin has virtually no value above face value. A fully uncirculated coin may bring one to two dollars from a collector.

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When was A Night at the Adonis created?

A Night at the Adonis was created in 1978.


When was The Garden of the Gods created?

The Garden of the Gods was created in 1978.


Did Ancient Greece have desserts?

The ancient Romans liked fresh fruit as their first choice for dessert. They were also big honey users, so their fresh fruit, if not eaten as is, was drenched in honey. They also had a custard type of pudding and honey cakes. A pastry roll-up filled with fruit or chopped nuts or both and drenched with honey was also eaten and even sold at public events.


How did Egyptian slaves live?

Cultural Change and Cultural Continuity are the contrasting concepts that structure the Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt.All cultures undergo change, and we have long recognized that change in one part of a cultural system results in changes in other parts of that system. We also recognize that societies often appear to be in equilibrium for long periods unmarked by great change. The longevity of many of the world's prehistoric and historic cultures reflects a continuity in their economic, sociopolitical, and religious systems. Cultural change and cultural continuity are two concepts through which we can examine the 3,000 years of Egyptian culture.Ancient Egyptian history is rich in examples of cultural continuity and cultural change. The 3,000 years of history argues for stability of basic economic, religious, social, and political systems. Yet in order for a culture to continue in the face of expansion, trade, invasion, and technological innovation, changes must occur.The ancient Egyptians saw no positive value in cultural change, except at the technological level, and they went to great lengths to prevent disruption in their society. Many of the rituals they performed encouraged continuity with earlier periods of their history that they visualized as ideal. As you explore the different themes presented in Life in Ancient Egypt look for examples of change and continuity, tradition and innovation.The Natural WorldEgypt is located in northeastern Africa. Today it is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by the Sudan, on the west by Libya, and on the east by the Red Sea, Jordan, and Israel. In ancient times, the boundaries of Egypt were the Mediterranean Sea to the north and Elephantine (modern Aswan) to the south. Its eastern and western boundaries were in the high desert on either side of the narrow strip of Nile valley and low desert. The Nile River runs the length of the country flowing south to north.ClimateThere is sunshine in Egypt throughout the year, but there are noticeable temperature differences between seasons and between various parts of the country. The climate is characterized by a two season year: a relatively cool winter from November to April and a dry, hot summer from May to October. In the Delta in the north, the highest average temperature in the middle of winter is 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit and in the hottest season 90 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. It is about 10 degrees hotter in southern Egypt. Rainfall in the Nile Valley is negligible, no more than 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 inches) per year in the Delta.Lower EgyptAncient Egypt was divided into two regions: Upper and Lower Egypt. Lower (northern) Egypt consisted of the Nile River's delta made by the river as it empties into the Mediterranean. Today the Delta is fifteen thousand square miles of alluvium (silt), which has been deposited over the centuries by the annual inundation of the Nile. Prior to the New Kingdom (before about 1539 B.C.), this area was only thinly settled, although it was used as a grazing area for cattle. Its high water table in modern times has made archaeological excavation for evidence of settlements difficult.Upper EgyptUpper Egypt was the long, narrow strip of ancient Egypt located south of the Delta. This area is composed of four topographic zones: the Nile River, the floodplain, the low desert, and the high desert. Each zone was exploited differently by the ancient Egyptians.The NileThe most important geographic feature is the Nile River itself. It was the lifeblood of ancient Egypt, and still makes life possible in the otherwise barren desert of Egypt. The longest river in the world (over 4,000 miles), the Nile is formed by the union in Khartoum, Sudan, of the White Nile from Lake Victoria in Uganda and the Blue Nile from the mountains of Ethiopia. The only other tributary is the Atbara, which flows into the Nile in eastern Sudan. Between Khartoum and Aswan, the Nile has six cataracts that interrupt its course, making navigation difficult.Between Aswan (ancient Elephantine) and the Mediterranean, the Nile is clear of cataracts and was the principal means of travel for the people of ancient Egypt. Various types of boats, including cargo, passenger, funerary, and naval vessels, journeyed on the river. Because the Nile flows from south to north, contrary to most rivers, a boat traveling north used oars aided by the current. The hieroglyph for "to go north" was a boat without a sail. The prevailing winds of Egypt blow from the north, so a boat traveling south could use sails. The hieroglyph for "to go south" was a boat with a sail.The Nile also served as a source of food for the people of ancient Egypt. The river teemed with different types of fish, for example, catfish, mullet, bolti, and perch. Although certain species of fish were prohibited from consumption in areas of Egypt because of local superstitions, fishing was practiced as both an industry and a sport. A wide variety of wild birds, including fourteen species of wild ducks and geese as well as herons, pelicans, and cranes, were hunted in the marshes along the Nile. Organized hunting expeditions used cats to flush the birds from the marshes and then lassos, weighted ropes, bows and arrows, and throwsticks to bring them down. There were also crocodiles and hippopotamuses in the Nile, but the Egyptians hunted them only for sport.The Nile served other purposes as well. It was the major source of water for bathing and drinking. Water was taken directly from the Nile or from one of the canals the Egyptians built to connect with it, although some wells did exist in towns not located directly on the river. Mud deposited by the Nile was used to make bricks for constructing houses, granaries, and enclosure walls around buildings.The Nile was also crucial for farming because it left a layer of nutrient-bearing silt when the waters of the annual inundation receded, and it also provided water for irrigation. Those gardens located around villages and country houses of the wealthy had to be watered regularly because of their location above the reach of the Nile's floodwaters and because of the types of crops grown there (including lettuce, onions, figs, peas, vetch, beans, and grapes). After the New Kingdom, the Egyptians used shadufs to raise water from the canals to the gardens. Because the shaduf had to be worked by hand, this method of irrigation was very labor intensive.Without the Nile, agriculture and, therefore, life in ancient Egypt would have been impossible. The river was a regular and predictable source of water. Because the flood was an event that annually revitalized the floodplain with water and new soil, it symbolized rebirth for the ancient Egyptians.The flood created a need for resurveying property lines and for dredging the canals. Because working in the fields was not possible during the months of the inundation, many farmers helped to construct temples, royal tombs, and palaces during those times. For their services, they were paid in food and other material goods.The second geographic feature of Egypt was the floodplain. This was the low strip of fertile land located on either side of the Nile River that flooded during the annual inundation. Most ancient settlements were located on the highest ground of this zone. In addition, most of the farming occurred here. The agricultural year began in September or October, when the inundation subsided leaving the earth soaked and overlaid with a fresh layer of black silt. The principal crops of ancient Egypt were emmer (a type of wheat), barley, and flax. Cattle and poultry were bred, not only for food but also for religious rituals.The Low DesertThe third geographic feature was a strip of higher land, located on either side of the floodplain, that was not watered by the Nile. This was the low desert, a zone of little vegetation. It was a place where men hunted animals such as antelope, hares, and lions. Because the low desert was dry and could not be farmed, the Egyptians located their cemeteries there. During the Predynastic Period (ca. 4500-3100 B.C.), they buried the deceased directly in the sands, which preserved their bodies naturally. Beginning with the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3100-2750 B.C.), however, the Egyptians began to enclose the deceased in tombs, losing the preservative advantages of the desert sand. Because they believed the body had to be preserved to assure an afterlife, they were forced to develop an artificial technique of preserving the body, a process we call mummification.The High DesertThe fourth geographic feature was the high desert, a barren area that was crossed only by trade caravans or organized groups searching for stone and mineral resources, such as calcite, gold, copper, amethyst, carnelian, and diorite. Several oases located in the high desert were cultivated to grow valuable crops like grapes and dates. These areas were important links in trade with more remote areas and were also used as places to house exiled prisoners.TradeThe needs of ancient civilized societies like Egypt were not fully satisfied by their own resources, so trade routes were developed to reach distant countries. The ancient Egyptians most often visited the countries along the Mediterranean Sea and the Upper Nile River to the south because they were immediately adjacent to Egypt and contained materials that the Egyptians desired. At various times in their history, the ancient Egyptians set up trade routes to Cyprus, Crete, Greece, Syro-Palestine, Punt, and Nubia. Egyptian records as early as the Predynastic Period list some items that were brought into Egypt, including leopard skins, giraffe tails, monkeys, cattle, ivory, ostrich feathers and eggs, and gold. Punt (whose location is uncertain) was a major source for incense, while Syro-Palestine provided cedar, oils and unguents, and horses.Land travel was time-consuming and dangerous because of possible attack by nomadic peoples. Donkeys were the only transport and pack animals used by the Egyptians until horses were brought to Egypt in Dynasty XVIII (ca. 1539-1295 B.C.). Horses were valuable and used only for riding or for pulling chariots. The domesticated camel was not introduced in Egypt until after 500 B.C.BibliographyBaines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1987. (Adult)James, T.G.H.An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1979. (Grade 7-adult)Kristensen, Preben, and Fiona Cameron. We Live in Egypt. New York: Bookwright Press, 1987. (Grades 3-6)Percefull, Aaron W. The Nile. New York: Franklin Watts, 1984. (Grade 6-adult)Classroom Activities1. Have students use a map of the Mediterranean area to draw lines to countries that conducted trade with ancient Egypt. Attach symbols and a key to indicate what products were produced in each country.2. Investigate mechanisms that various cultures have used for irrigation, such as the shaduf, waterwheel, and Archimedes' screw. Build models of these.3. Compare the role of the Nile River in Egypt with the role of Pittsburgh's three rivers. Discuss how the Nile was essential to life in ancient Egypt and list the various ways the Egyptian people used the river. Then research the importance of Pittsburgh's three rivers from the city's beginnings in the eighteenth century to the present day. For more information on Pittsburgh's rivers, write for free information to Public Affairs Officer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pittsburgh District, 1000 Liberty Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15222.The HallSeveral areas in The Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt relate to geography. The case entitled "Geography" includes a map of ancient Egypt and another one showing the countries that had contact with Egypt; it also contains some imported jars and a bowl. The Carnegie boat exhibit is a good place to discuss the importance of the Nile River to the ancient Egyptians. This exhibit can be supplemented with the panel on travel to the left of the boat. The case entitled "Military" discusses some of the Egyptians' foreign contacts. Other cases throughout the hall display some artifacts made from Egypt's mineral resources and from materials obtained from trade.Daily LifeBecause the history of ancient Egypt spanned a period of more than three thousand years, customs and traditions varied in different periods. This guide focuses on the material culture of a nonroyal Egyptian family at the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1070 B.C.)To understand the everyday life of ancient Egyptians, archaeologists draw on many sources. The most valuable sources include tomb paintings and reliefs. Also included in tombs, as part of the funerary equipment, were objects and models of objects that the Egyptians used in their daily life. Artifacts from the few towns that have been excavated and hundreds of documents written by the ancient Egyptians shed additional light on their life. Much of the day-to-day running of their households, however, remains obscure.The FamilyThe nuclear family was the fundamental social unit of ancient Egypt. The father was responsible for the economic well-being of the family. Upper-class men often became scribes or priests, while lower-class men often were farmers, hunters, potters, or other craftsmen. The mother supervised the household, including servants, and cared for the upbringing of the children. Upper-class women could become priestesses, and all women could become musicians or professional mourners.Children stayed at home until they reached marriageable age (about twenty for males, younger for females). Although Egyptian children had toys and are occasionally depicted at play, much of their time was spent preparing for adulthood. For example, peasant children accompanied their parents into the fields; the male offspring of craftsmen often served as apprentices to their fathers. Many privileged children received formal education to become a scribe. Some promising youngsters were taught by priests in temples, and children of the nobility sometimes received private instruction from tutors or learned to be an officer in the army.DressThe dress of the ancient Egyptians consisted not only of the clothes they wore but also of the elaborate costume jewelry that served to embellish the usually plain garments. White linen was most commonly used for clothing though wool was used quite frequently. Garments were draped around the body rather than tailored, and sewing was kept to a minimum. Colored or patterned cloth was rarely used. Prior to the New Kingdom the basic dress for men was a kilt, which fell just above the knee. It was made from a rectangular piece of linen wrapped around the body and tied at the waist with a knot or fastened with a buckle. In the New Kingdom men usually wore a short underkilt over which hung a long, heavily pleated skirt that was knotted at the hips with a fringed sash. Also worn was a short, wide cape covering the upper part of the body and hanging from the shoulders.Prior to the New Kingdom, women wore simple sheath dresses falling from the breast to just above the ankle, but in the New Kingdom dresses became much more elegant. The sheath dress was worn, but only as an undergarment. A heavily pleated fringed robe was worn on top.Children and those participating in rigorous exercise frequently wore no clothes at all. Both boys' and girls' heads were usually shaved except for a long, braided sidelock.Although the Egyptians spent much of their time barefoot, both men and women sometimes wore sandals made from papyrus, palm leaves, or leather fastened by leather thongs. The standard sandal had a thong that passed between the first and second toes and attached to a bar that went across the instep. Sandals were always removed in the presence of a superior.An integral part of the Egyptian costume was a wig or a hairpiece attached to the natural hair. Because of the intense heat, many Egyptians shaved their heads or cut their hair very short, although some kept their hair very long and elaborately coiffed.Both men and women wore jewelry such as earrings, bracelets, anklets, rings, and beaded necklaces. They incorporated into their jewelry many minerals including amethyst, garnet, jasper, onyx, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, as well as copper, gold, and shells. Because the Egyptians were very superstitious, frequently their jewelry contained amulets.Cosmetics were not only an important part of Egyptian dress but also a matter of personal hygiene and health. Many items related to cosmetics have been found in tombs and are illustrated in tomb paintings. Oils and creams were of vital importance against the hot Egyptian sun and dry winds. Eye paint, both green and black, is probably the most characteristic of the Egyptian cosmetics. The green pigment was malachite, an oxide of copper. The black paint, called kohl, was a sulfate of lead and, in the late Middle and New Kingdoms, was soot. Kohl was usually kept in a small pot that had a flat bottom, wide rim, tiny mouth, and a flat, disk-shaped lid. Many kohl pots have been found in Egyptian tombs. To color their cheeks, the Egyptians used red ocher mixed with a base of fat or gum resin; ocher may have also been used as lipstick. Henna, a reddish-brown dye, was certainly used to color hair and perhaps also the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and nails.The HomeAs in our society, the size and appearance of an Egyptian house depended on the family's wealth and the location of the building. A typical nonprofessional's house in a city would have a small court facing a narrow street with a few rooms at the back It had windows placed high in the walls and covered with latticework to keep out heat and the sun's glare. Steps at the rear of the house led up to a flat roof, where the family frequently slept to enjoy the breezes blowing off the desert. Houses were constructed of sun-dried mud bricks. Although these bricks were inexpensive and enabled fast construction, they were not durable over a long period of time.Egyptian homes had kitchens, and most kitchens were equipped with a cylindrical, baked clay stove for cooking. The basic cooking equipment was a two-handled pottery saucepan.The few furnishings in the ancient Egyptian home were simple in design, although the craftsmanship varied. The most common piece of furniture was a low stool, used by all Egyptians including the pharaoh. These were made from wood, had leather or woven rush seats, and had three or four legs. Usually the three-legged stool was used for work because floors were uneven. They used tables, which were often low, for eating and working.The Egyptian bed had a wooden frame with legs often shaped like the legs of animals; a woven rush mat served as "springs." At one end of the bed was a footboard; at the other end, a wooden or stone headrest, which was equivalent to our pillow.Lamps were used to light the house after dark. They were, for the most part, simple pottery or stone bowls containing oil and a wick. The ancient Egyptians did not have cupboards as we have in modern houses. They used wooden boxes or baskets to store their household goods. Their food was stored in wheel-made pottery.FoodThe Egyptians' staple food was bread. It was made from barley and emmer wheat, their most common crops. Bread was usually baked in a conical mold that was placed over an open fire. There were also dome-shaped ovens where net loaves of bread were baked by placing them against either the hot interior or exterior of the dome. The main beverage of ancient Egypt was beer, but the frequent depictions of grape arbors on tomb walls and the numerous wine vessels found throughout Egypt indicate that wine was also popular. However, only the nobility could afford to drink wine on a regular basis.Numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables were grown in irrigated gardens. Fruits included figs, grapes, plums, dates, and watermelon. Vegetables included beets, sweet onions, radishes, turnips, garlic, lettuce, chick peas, beans, and lentils.The Egyptians ate a variety of meat, fish, and fowl. Beef, mutton, pork, and wild game such as hyenas were part of their diet. Fowl included domestic geese and pigeons and a wide variety of wild birds--herons, pelicans, cranes, wild ducks, and wild geese. The Nile supplied many kinds of fish, including catfish, mullet, bolti, and perch.Leisure ActivitiesThe ancient Egyptians filled their leisure time with many pleasant activities. They enjoyed good food, drink, music, singing, and dancing. The upper class watched professional dancers at formal banquets. A number of musical instruments accompanied the dancers. The flute, oboe, trumpet, and an instrument resembling a clarinet were the most common wind instruments; stringed instruments included various types of harps, lutes, and lyres; and tambourines and drums were the normal percussion instruments. In rituals, sistra and clappers were used.Other leisure activities included hunting, fowling, and fishing for sport. Hunters used a bow and arrow for most game--ibex, gazelle, wild cattle, ostriches, and hares. Fowling and fishing took place in marshes. For fowling, Egyptians used a throwstick that acted like a boomerang, stunning the bird and knocking it out of the sky. For fishing a long, double-barbed spear was used.The Egyptians enjoyed pets. The dog was the most common. Cats also became popular. The wealthy sometimes had monkeys.Members of literate households (5 percent at most) enjoyed reading. In the quiet of their homes, the ancient Egyptians played a number of board games, the most, popular being senet. Ancient Egyptian children had games and amusements similar to those of Egyptian children today. A number of simple toys like balls and dolls have been found in tombs.Many details of the Egyptians' daily lives still remain hidden. As archaeologists discover more tomb paintings and uncover additional artifacts from cemeteries and towns, our knowledge of their fascinating culture increases.BibliographyBaines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1987. (Adult)James, T.G.H. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1979. (Grade 7-adult)Leacroft, Helen. The Buildings of Ancient Egypt. New York: Scott, 1963. (Grade 4-adult)Mellersh, H.E. Finding Out About Ancient Egypt. New York: Lothrop, 1962. (Grades 4-7)Robinson, Charles Alexander, Jr. The First Book of Ancient Egypt. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1961. (Grades 4-6)Romano, James F. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1990. (Grade 7-adult)Stead, Miriam. Egyptian Life. London: British Museum Publications, 1986. (Grade 7-adult)Teachers' Project BooksFarnay, Josie, and Claude Soleillant. Egypt: Activities and Projects in Color. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1978.Purdy, Susan, and Cass R Sundak. Ancient Egypt. New York: Franklin Watts, 1982.Classroom Activities1. Investigate ancient Egyptian objects used for grooming such as tweezers, combs, mirrors, and cosmetics. Compare and contrast them with modern grooming techniques.2. Research and then write and produce a play about an Egyptian family attending a banquet. What would they wear? Create costumes from inexpensive white muslin. What would they eat? Buy some modern-day counterparts of Egyptian food. What would the entertainment be? Construct some musical instruments; learn some Egyptian games.3. Have children construct a model of a typical Egyptian home and a model of a wealthy Egyptian villa. Compare and contrast the differences. What materials were used in construction? What furnishings were in both kinds of homes? Where were the homes located?Museum VisitIn the museum's Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt, you will find many articles related to daily life in ancient Egypt. In the Daily Life case you will find a wooden headrest, a mirror handle, clappers, kohl, and a game piece. In the Crafts cases are examples of jewelry, kohl pots, lamps, wigs, vases, and tweezers.Gods and ReligionA general understanding of the world view of the ancient Egyptians is the best preparation for this brief examination of their confusing array of deities. The term "world view" denotes the set of widely held beliefs that people of a specific culture hold to explain what they observe in their world. The ancient Egyptians interpreted every occurrence in terms of the relationship between natural and supernatural forces. Those phenomena that figured prominently in their lives included the annual cycle of the Nile River's flood (or inundation), the enormous size and unchanging harshness of the surrounding desert, and the daily cycle of the sun's appearance in the east, gradual movement across the sky, and eventual disappearance in the west. The ancient Egyptians developed a world view in which these and other events and conditions were attributed to the actions of multiple, related gods and goddesses.Creation BeliefsAncient Egyptian ideas about the creation of the world offer particularly valuable insights into the way these orderly, agricultural people viewed themselves and their land. Several versions of the creation myth exist, and each evokes images of the Nile River's inundation cycle and the growth of bountiful crops on the silt left behind by receding floodwaters.According to one widely accepted creation myth, eight deities dwelled among the darkness and disorder of a great watery void before the world existed. The water was personified by the god Nun, and the creation of the world began when an earthen mound arose from him. Atum or in one version Re, the sun god, rose from this mound. In another version of creation, a lotus arose from the waters of Nun, and Atum appeared from within the lotus. Atum, from within himself, brought forth the deities who represented air (Shu) and moisture (Tefnet); then Tefnet gave birth to the sky (Nut) and the earth (Geb). Humans were often believed to be the products of Atum's or Re's tears.View of the WorldThe ancient Egyptians imagined the world to be a far different place from what we now know it to be. They believed the earth was a flat platter of clay afloat on a vast sea of water from which the Nile River sprung. In this fundamental description of the world, the forces of nature were identified as divine descendants of the creator god. The Nile River, for example, was represented by the god Hapy.The Nile Valley's stable and predictable natural cycles aided in the development of the Egyptian civilization. The river's annual inundation of its floodplain brought fertility to the land through water and silt; the region's perpetual sun promoted bountiful harvests; and the dryness of the climate provided ideal conditions for the safe storage of surplus crops. Because the very structure of the ancient Egyptians' civilization depended upon the continued predictability of their environment, they looked to their gods to perpetuate the status quo.Of all the deities, the goddess Maat was the most important in perpetuating the status quo. The Egyptians believed that when the gods formed the land of Egypt out of chaos, Maat was created to embody truth, justice, and the basic orderly arrangement of the world. Maat personified the perfect state of the god-created world, and all that people had to do in order to live and prosper in the world was to honor and preserve Maat. On a national level, it was the king's responsibility to preserve Maat through daily offerings given at the temples. On an individual level, the goal of every Egyptian was to lead a honorable life that would allow entrance into the afterlife after death.Gods and GoddessesWhen we try to make some sense out of the many Egyptian gods and goddesses, we must keep two important facts in mind. First, early in Egyptian history Lower (north) and Upper (south) Egypt were unified under one ruler. This union resulted in the merging of several cultural traditions. Second, because ancient Egyptian civilization existed for more than three thousand years, the deities and myths gradually changed over time as a result of new ideas, contact with other peoples, and changing cultural values.One of the best-known legends in Egyptian mythology, that of the god Osiris, revolves around a deity who at one time may have been a local ruler in the Nile River's delta. Originally he was a god associated with the city of Busiris in the Delta and is an example of a regional god who gained countrywide acceptance.According to the myth, Osiris was the king of Egypt who was killed by his jealous brother Seth. This evil brother then cut up Osiris' body and scattered the parts throughout Egypt. Osiris had a faithful wife Isis who, along with her sister Nephthys, gathered the pieces together. Using her magical abilities, Isis put the pieces back together, but Osiris could never again live like the other gods. He, therefore, reigned as lord of the underworld, while his son, Horus, became the ruler of Egypt (see below). Osiris is represented as a mummified king.Because the legend told of Osiris' death and rebirth, the Egyptians honored him as the god of the dead. He is depicted as a mummy holding the crook and flail, the insignia of kingship. During the Old Kingdom (ca. 2750-2250 B.C.), he became associated with the deceased pharaoh in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2025-1627/1606 B.C.), when many of the funerary rituals became available to much of the population, all individuals became associated with Osiris upon their deaths.Horus, the falcon-headed son of Osiris and Isis, is the hero of a legend related to the Osiris myth. The focus of this legend is on a battle between Horus and his uncle Seth for the throne of Egypt. This battle was very intense because Horus also wanted to avenge his father's murder. Horus eventually defeated Seth and became the ruler of Egypt (the kings of Egypt were considered to be Horus on earth). During the course of the battle, however, Seth tore out and broke Horus' eye by smashing it on the ground. Another god, Thoth, picked up the eye and restored it. This eye became a very powerful amulet known as the wedjet-eye and is frequently seen in tombs or in jewelry.Thoth, the restorer of the eye, is generally depicted with the head of an ibis, a common Egyptian bird. Thoth was the scribe of the gods and was believed to have invented writing. He possessed wonderful magic and was also associated with the moon and time. Sometimes he is represented by a baboon, when he is depicted as a whole animal rather than a man with a baboon's head.As the religion of Egypt evolved, various gods gained importance. Hundreds of years after the pyramids were built, the major center of government moved south to the city of Thebes, and the local god of that city became the head of the Egyptian pantheon. This was the god Amun and a very large and impressive temple was built in his honor near the modern village of Karnak. Although the ram and the goose were considered to be the sacred animals of Amun, the god himself is always portrayed as a man. Amun's wife was the goddess Mut. Mut is often portrayed as a woman wearing a vulture headdress, but can also have a lion's head or be represented as a vulture.Another goddess was Hathor, who took several forms, all related to a cow. Sometimes she was depicted with a cow's head or just with the ears or horns of a cow. At other times a whole cow was used as her representation. A major deity, she was identified with beauty and music. Many temples were built in her honor.The goddess Sekhmet represented war, destruction, and pestilence. Usually portrayed with the head of a lion on a woman's body, she was also associated in another aspect with the cat.Another deity who was often portrayed with the head of an animal is Anubis. He had the head of a doglike animal called a jackal. Because jackals lived in the low desert where cemeteries were located, Anubis came to be honored as the god of the necropolis. Anubis also served as the god of embalming, in charge of preparing bodies for burial.We do not know why the Egyptians chose to associate some gods and goddesses with animals or why a certain animal species came to represent a specific deity. All the animals that developed sacred associations, however, were native to Egypt at some time during its history.Cult TemplesCult temples were places where religious rituals took place in ancient Egypt. Unlike modern churches, however, cult temples were not intended to hold gatherings of worshipers. Instead, they were regarded as a home for a particular god, and entrance privileges were reserved for the king and the temple's priests. A deity's presence within a temple was personified by a statue, and the ritual care of that statue required it to be fed, dressed, and anointed with a perfumed oil every day. In theory, it was the king's obligation to attend to the needs of the deities in the cult temples. In actual fact, the king was physically unable to preside at all the temples in Egypt, so he appointed priests to act as his representatives in the daily rituals.Daily rituals at cult temples began in the predawn hours with the slaughter of the animals needed for the day's food offerings. At dawn a procession of carefully groomed priests clad in long white linen robes entered the temple after stopping to wash and purify themselves in a sacred lake outside the structure. The priests deposited their offerings of food in the temple's outer, column-bordered courtyard and kindled incense such as myrrh. After walking through a series of roofed inner halls and opening the doors to the god's shrine, the priest conducted a ritual that involved making additional food offerings, burning more incense, and washing, anointing, and dressing the statue. At the conclusion of this service, the priest backed out of the sanctuary, wiping away the marks of his footprints as he went. At noon the chief priest entered the sanctuary again for a shorter ritual in which he offered the god refreshment. In the evening the food offerings were removed, and the sanctuary containing the god's statue was sealed.In theory the deities ate the food offerings, while in fact the food was eaten by the priests after they removed it from the temple. The Egyptians believed that if they made a statement or carried out some activity involving a specific concern, their words or action would bring about a result. For that reason, they were not bothered that the food never disappeared.The Egyptian belief that certain animals were sacred to specific deities led temple priests to raise and care for a few of the species sacred to the temple's god or goddess. These animals, whether a cat, bull, crocodile, falcon, or ibis, lived in relative luxury on the temple grounds, and when they died, they were mummified so they could enjoy an afterlife. During the Late Period (ca. 664-332 B.C.), toward the end of ancient Egyptian history, the temple priests found it economically profitable to raise large numbers of these animals on the temple grounds so that animal mummies could be sold to pilgrims to be used as votive offerings at temples. This practice grew into a business of major proportions for the cult temples. One temple necropolis, for example, housed over four million ibis mummies. The Egyptians built mortuary temples as well as cult temples. Whereas cult temples honored a specific deity, mortuary temples honored not only a deity but also a specific deceased pharaoh. However, the architecture of both was similar, as were the rituals performed in them. The temple as an institution was at the heart of Egyptian society. It reminded the Egyptians of the nature of their world and their role in their divine kingdom.BibliographyAsimov, Issac. The Egyptians. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1967. (Grade 6-adult)Cottrell, Leonard. Land of the Pharaohs. Cleveland: Collins Publishing Co., 1960. (Grades 3-6)Fairservis, Walter. Egypt, Gift of the Nile. New York: Macmillan, 1963. (Grade 5-adult)James, T.G.H. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1979. (Grade 7-adult)Leacroft, Helen. The Buildings of Ancient Egypt. New York: Scott, 1963. (Grade 4-adult)Lurker, Manfred. Gods and Symbols of Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Dictionary. Revised by Peter A. Clayton. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1984. (Grade 7-adult)Romano, James F. Death, Burial, and Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1990. (Grade 6-adult)Trigger, B.G.; B. Kemp; and D. O'Connor. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. (Adult)Classroom Activities1. Write an essay. Ask your class to imagine that they are designing an exhibit about the world view of modern Americans. What items would they include? For example, a globe or a picture taken from a satellite might symbolize our view of the earth as a planet moving through space. A microscope might represent our knowledge of life forms and structures not visible to the naked eye. Have students list ten items in their essay and explain there reasons for including each.2. Create a mural or collage of animal symbols in our culture. After discussing the associations ancient Egyptians made between their deities and specific animals, spend some time talking about animal symbols in our own culture. Have your students use old newspapers and magazines to find pictures of animal trademarks, symbols, mascots, and so on. Discuss the traits each of these animals exhibits.3. Examine myths. Dozens of myths are part of our own culture. Discuss the lesson that a particular modern myth teaches and the relevance, if any, that it has to actual historical facts. Have the students research the creation myths of another culture and report their findings to the class.The HallIn The Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt the exhibit cases entitled "Creation Myths," "The Deities," "Cult Temples," and "Animal Mummies" deal with the ancient Egyptians' religion and their deities. On a curved wall near the reconstructed tomb, nineteen different gods and goddesses are pictured. Deities are also depicted o the walls of the reconstructed tomb, on coffins, and on other artifacts in the hall. Directly outside the hall is a diorama of colossal statues, one of which represents the god Horus, and a copy of a statue of the goddess Sekhmet.Funerary CustomsMuch of our knowledge about ancient Egyptian culture comes from archaeological evidence uncovered in tombs. Objects, inscriptions, and paintings from tombs have led Egyptologists to conclude that what appeared to be a preoccupation with death was in actuality an overwhelming desire to secure and perpetuate in the afterlife the "good life" enjoyed on earth.Preparing for the AfterlifeOver the more than three thousand years of ancient Egypt's history, traditional beliefs about the transition to eternal life persisted, with new ideas being incorporated from time to time. Most important for full participation in the afterlife was the need for an individual's identity to be preserved. Consequently, the body had to remain intact, and the person had to receive regular offerings of food and drink.The afterlife was assured by (1) preserving the body through mummification; (2) protecting the body in a tomb and inscribing a person's name on the tomb walls, funerary stela, and burial equipment; and (3) providing food and drink or illustrating food stuffs and writing about food offerings in tombs in case appropriate relatives or priests were not available to make food offerings. These paintings and funerary inscriptions, which provided the owner of the tomb with "a thousand bread, a thousand cattle," were thought capable of sustaining the individual. The Egyptians also provided their tombs with many kinds of equipment, including furniture, utensils, clothing, jewelry, and cosmetics, according to their wealth, to ensure their material comfort in the best possible afterlife.To ensure divine protection, funerary texts were written at first only on the walls of pharaohs' tombs and later on papyrus left in the tombs of private people. These texts included such writings as adaptations of the myth about the death of Osiris and spells to protect the deceased on his or her dangerous journey to the underworld.The Egyptians believed that a person's spirit or soul was composed of three distinct parts, the ka (its vital force or "spiritual twin"), the ba (its personality or spirit), and the akh. The ka was created at a person's birth and needed a body to continue to live after an individual's death. It could also live in a statue of the deceased. The ba was a person's spirit, represented most commonly by a human-headed bird, that was released at the time of death. It could leave the tomb during the daylight hours to travel around the earth and was also with the deceased at his or her judgment. The akh was the "immortality" of an individual and resided in the heavens.The final step in the transition to the afterlife was the judgment by Osiris, god of the underworld, in a ritual known as the Weighing of the Heart. If a person had led a decent life, he or she would be judged worthy of eternal life. Many spells and rituals were designed to ensure a favorable judgment and were written in the papyrus or linen "Book of the Dead."The Burial RitesWhen a person died, the whole family went into mourning. Women wailed, special clothing was worn, and men stopped shaving and eating. When a pharaoh died, the entire country mourned, and although the ancient Egyptians emphasized cleanliness, all shaving and bathing ceased.The corpse was taken by boat from the east bank of the Nile, where most people lived, to the west bank. Cemeteries were located in the western low desert because the west was associated with the setting sun and death. First the body was placed in a purification tent where it was cleansed and dressed in clean clothes. Next it was brought to the embalming tent where it was preserved. The embalming priests wore masks representing Anubis, the god of embalming, and recited prayers and spells.MumificationThe process of mummification, the form of embalming practiced by the ancient Egyptians, changed over time from the Old Kingdom (ca. 2750-2250 B.C.), when it was available only to kings, to the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1070 B.C.), when it was available to everyone. The level of mummification depended on what one could afford. The most fully developed form involved four basic steps:1. All of the internal organs, except the heart, were removed. Since the organs were the first parts of the body to decompose but were necessary in the afterlife, they were mummified and put in canopic jars that were placed in the tomb at the time of burial. The heart was believed to be the seat of intelligence and emotion and was, therefore, left in the body. The brain, on the other hand, was regarded as having no significant value and, beginning in the New Kingdom, was removed through the nose and discarded.2. The body was packed and covered with natron, a salty drying agent, and left to dry out for forty to fifty days. By this time all the body's liquid had been absorbed and only the hair, skin, and bones were left.3. The body cavity was stuffed with resin, sawdust, or linen and shaped to restore the deceased's form and features.4. The body was then tightly wrapped in many layers of linen with numerous amulets wrapped between the layers. The most important amulet was the scarab beetle, which was placed over the heart. Jewelry was also placed among the bandages. At each stage of wrapping, a priest recited spells and prayers. This whole procedure could take as long as fifteen days. After the wrapping was complete, the body was put into a shroud. The entire mummification process took about seventy days.The Funeral ProcessionAfter the embalming was completed, the family was notified that it was time to leave its home on the east bank and travel by boat to the west bank for the funeral. The survivors formed a procession that also included priests and professional mourners to journey to the tomb. Servants carried flowers, offerings, food and drink, sacred ritual oils, and all the objects intended for burial. Some of the most important of these were a large box containing the canopic jars and a chest containing statuettes called shabtis.A priest performed the Opening of the Mouth ceremony on the mummy at the entrance of the tomb. This ritual gave the deceased the ability to speak, eat, and have full use of his or her body. After the mummy was put in a coffin and then in a sarcophagus, it was placed in the burial chamber. Included in the tomb were all the funerary figurines, headrests, models of daily life, furniture, jars, cosmetics, and games necessary to ensure the deceased's enjoyment of the afterlife.After the door was sealed, a banquet was held outside of the tomb entrance. When all the mummification equipment was buried near the tomb, the funeral was over.TombsIn the Predynastic Period (ca. 4500-3100 B.C.), bodies were buried in the fetal position in shallow, rectangular or oval graves dug directly in the sand away from any arable land. With the founding of the Egyptian state at the beginning of Dynasty I (ca. 3100 B.C.), burial practices changed and tombs began to appear. During the Dynastic Period three basic types of tombs evolved: mastabas, rock-cut tombs, and, for many kings up to the time of the New Kingdom, pyramids. During the first dynasties the Egyptians began to build mastabas of mud brick. These early mastabas consisted of a rectangular-shaped chapel above ground with a burial chamber below ground. Mastaba tombs enjoyed great popularity in the Old and Middle Kingdoms. The later mastabas were often built of stone, with larger chapels and a series of chambers above ground.The first known pyramid was the Step Pyramid of King Djoser at Saqqara (Dynasty III, ca. 2700 B.C.). Its superstructure was a configuration of six squared-off mastabas of diminishing size set on top of one another, with the burial chamber below ground.True pyramids had smooth sides. The Dynasty IV pyramids, including Pharaoh Khufu's Great Pyramid at Giza, were probably the largest ever built and consisted of large stone blocks faced with limestone. Later pyramids were smaller and usually had a rubble-filled core. Pyramids did not stand alone but were part of a complex of buildings that included various temples.In areas with steep cliffs, the Egyptians tended to cut tombs deep into the rock. These rock-cut tombs first appeared in the Old Kingdom, and by the New Kingdom royal rock-cut tombs were widespread. These royal tombs were in a remote valley that we call the Valley of the Kings and consisted of a series of rooms cut into the sides of steep cliffs. Nonroyal people also used rock-cut tombs that were often topped with small brick pyramids.All ancient Egyptians believed in the afterlife and spent their lives preparing for it. Pharaohs built the finest tombs, collected the most elaborate funerary equipment, and were mummified in the most expensive way. Others were able to provide for their afterlives according to their earthly means. Regardless of their wealth, however, they all expected the afterlife to be an idealized version of their earthly existence.BibliographyStudentsAliki. Mummies made in Egypt. New York: Harper & Row, Junior Books Division, 1985. (Grade K-6)Cottrell, Leonard. The Secrets of Tutankhamens's Tomb. Greenwich, Conn: New York Graphic Society Publishers, 1964. (Grade 4 and up)Glubok, Shirley. The Mummy of Ramose: The Life and Death of an Ancient Egyptian Nobleman. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. (Grade 3-6)Macauley, David. Pyramid. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. (Grade 5 and up)Older Students and TeachersAndrews, Carol. Egyptian Mummies. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984.David, A. Rosalie. The Ancient Egyptians. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.Desroches-Noblecourt, Cristiane. Tutankhamen. New York: Doublday & Company, 1965.James, T.G.H. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1979. (Grade 7-adult)Romano, James F. Death, Burial, and Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1990.Spencer, A.J. Death in Ancient Egypt. London: Penguin Books, 1982.Classroom Activities1. The lives of ancient Egyptians were dominated by rituals designed to ensure a perfect afterlife. Research these ancient Egyptians rituals and compare and contrast them with modern- day rituals surrounding various ceremonies. Have students list rituals they have participated in recently.2. Have students research various ancient Egyptian amulets to learn their meaning and use. The students may also make amulets out of self-hardening clay. Discuss good luck symbols used today, and try to find their origins.3. Imagine that people today have beliefs similar to those of the ancient Egyptians. Ask the students to list the things they might put in a tomb to ensure a comfortable afterlife.The HallThe Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt contains a reconstruction of the central burial chamber of the "middle-class" tomb of Sennedjem where you will find artifacts excavated from similar tombs of the New Kingdom. The hall also has two human mummies and several animal mummies; the latter were used as offerings to the deities. Also on view are many objects thought to be necessary for the deceased in the afterlife. One of the highlights of the hall is the funerary boat, one of five or six similar boats from the pyramid complex of Senwosret III, that were probably used in his funeral procession.VocabularyAfterlifeExistence after death. The ancient Egyptians believed the perfect afterlife was an idealized version of their earthly existence.AmuletGood luck charm. Many represented gods or goddesses or their symbols. Others were hieroglyphs that stood for protective words such as life, good, beauty, and stability. By wearing such charms, the owner received the powers associated with the deity or hieroglyph.AnointTo rub with a perfumed oil or ointment.Archaeological EvidenceThe material remains of past human societies, studied by scientists called archaeologists."Book of the Dead"A New Kingdom collection of spells often written on papyrus or linen and placed in the tomb with the mummy to give it protection in its journey to the afterlife. It was actually called the "Chapters of Coming Forth by Day."Canopic JarsFour jars that contained the deceased's lungs, liver, intestines, and stomach. They were buried with the mummy in the tomb.CataractA stretch of rapids interrupting the flow of the Nile, caused by boulders of granite interspersed in the Nubian sandstone belt.ClappersA musical instrument consisting of two sticks tied together and played like castanets.Crook and FlailSymbols of kingship. The crook is a shepherd's staff with a hook at the upper end; the flail is a free-swinging stick tied to the end of a long handle.CultA system of religious worship or ritual.DeltaA usually triangular deposit of silt at the mouth of a river where it flows into a sea or ocean.HeadrestA support for the head of a person sleeping on his or her side. It consisted of a curved portion, which held the head, on a pedestal about the height of the shoulder.IbisA large, heron-like, wading bird with long legs and a long, slender, curved bill.InundationThe annual flood of the Nile River that occurred in ancient times from June to early October. It was caused by rains in Central Africa and melting snow and rains in the Ethiopian highlands.LotusA form of water lily that bears a showy flower. It was a symbol of Upper Egypt.Lower EgyptThe area of Egypt consisting of the Nile River's fan-shaped delta. The Nile flows north through Lower Egypt into the Mediterranean Sea.MastabasEarly tombs built of mud brick or stone in a rectangular shape at ground level with a burial chamber below ground.Mortuary TempleA structure where the dead were prepared for burial and worshiped.MummyThe preserved corpse of an ancient Egyptian.MyrrhA fragrant, bitter-tasting gum resin exuded from several varieties of trees in east Africa and the Arabian peninsula, used in making incense and perfume.Necropolis(From the Greek word for cemetery). A large, important burial ground that was used over a long period of time.NilometerA staircase descending into the Nile with marks indicating various levels above low water. It was used for measuring and recording inundation levels.OasisAn area in a desert that is fertile because of the presence of water.PantheonAll the officially recognized gods of a people.PapyrusA reed that grows in the marshes along the banks of the Nile. It was used to make the paper-like writing material of the same name. Papyrus was a symbol of Lower Egypt.PyramidsBurial tombs of pharaohs during the Old and Middle Kingdoms. They were always part of a pyramid complex that included a funerary temple and a valley temple connected by a causeway.Sacred LakeA man-made lake on the grounds of a temple. It was used in purification rituals.ScarabA dung beetle, which came to symbolize rebirth for the ancient Egyptians, who watched the insect's young appear "spontaneously" from the ground. They did not realize that the adult beetle had deposited eggs in a dung ball in the ground. Also, an Egyptian amulet shaped like a beetle.ScribeA person whose occupation was writing.ShabtiStatuettes of servants placed in tombs to work for the deceased in the afterlife.ShadufA device consisting of a long pole with a bucket on one end and a weight on the other. It was used to raise water from the river or canal in irrigating land.ShrineA place of worship centered around a sacred scene or object, such as a religious image in a niche.Sistrum (plural, sistra)A musical rattle used in religious ceremonies in ancient Egypt.Stela (plural, stelae)A free-standing slab of stone (rarely of wood) inscribed, usually on one side, with text and pictures that record primarily the name and titles of the deceased and his family and the offering formulae requesting supplies necessary for eternal life.ThrowstickA curved piece of flat wood thrown in hunting to hit the wings of birds in flight.Upper EgyptThe area of Egypt located south of the Delta.Valley of the KingsThe modern name of the remote valley on the west bank of Thebes where royal rock-cut tombs were built during the New Kingdom.Votive OfferingAn object given, dedicated, or consecrated in fulfillment of a vow or a pledge.Weighing of the heartThe ancient Egyptians believed that the heart recorded all of the good and bad deeds of a person's life, and was needed for judgment in the afterlife. After a person died, the heart was weighed against the feather of Maat (the goddess of truth and justice). The scales were watched by Anubis (the jackal-headed god of embalming) and the results recorded by Thoth (the ibis-headed god of writing). If a person had led a decent life, the heart balanced with the feather and the person was rendered worthy to live forever in paradise with Osiris (the god of the underworld).


What did Ibn Sina discover?

ibn Sina was born in AH 370/AD 980 near Bukhara in Central Asia, where his father governed a village in one of the royal estates. At thirteen, Ibn Sina began a study of medicine that resulted in 'distinguished physicians . . . reading the science of medicine under [him]' (Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is (The Life of Ibn Sina): 27). His medical expertise brought him to the attention of the Sultan of Bukhara, Nuh ibn Mansur, whom he treated successfully; as a result he was given permission to use the sultan's library and its rare manuscripts, allowing him to continue his research into modes of knowledge.When the sultan died, the heir to the throne, 'Ali ibn Shams al-Dawla, asked Ibn Sina to continue al vizier, but the philosopher was negotiating to join the forces of another son of the late king, Ala al-Dawla, and so went into hiding. During this time he composed his major philosophical treatise, Kitab al-shifa' (Book of Healing), a comprehensive account of learning that ranges from logic and mathematics to metaphysics and the afterlife. While he was writing the section on logic Ibn Sina was arrested and imprisoned, but he escaped to Isfahan, disguised as a Sufi, and joined Ala al-Dawla. While in the service of the latter he completed al-Shifa' and produced the Kitab al-najat(Book of Salvation), an abridgment of al-Shifa'. He also produced at least two major works on logic: one, al-Mantiq,translated as The Propositional Logic of Ibn Sina, was a commentary on Aristotle's Prior Analytics and forms part of al-Shifa'; the other, al-Isharat wa-'I-tanbihat(Remarks and Admonitions), seems to be written in the 'indicative mode', where the reader must participate by working out the steps leading from the stated premises to proposed conclusions. He also produced a treatise on definitions and a summary of the theoretical sciences, together with a number of psychological, religious and other works; the latter include works on astronomy, medicine, philology and zoology, as well as poems and an allegorical work, Hayy ibn Yaqzan (The Living Son of the Vigilant). His biographer also mentions numerous short works on logic and metaphysics, and a book on 'Fair Judgment' that was lost when his prince's fortunes suffered a turn. Ibn Sina's philosophical and medical work and his political involvement continued until his death.2 Reason and realityIbn Sina's autobiography parallels his allegorical work, Hayy ibn Yaqzan. Both clarify how it is possible for individuals by themselves to arrive at the ultimate truths about reality, being and God. The autobiography shows how Ibn Sina more or less taught himself, although with particular kinds of help at significant moments, and proceeded through various levels of sophistication until he arrived at ultimate truths. Such progress was possible because of Ibn Sina's conception of reality and reasoning. He maintains that God, the principle of all existence, is pure intellect, from whom other existing things such as minds, bodies and other objects all emanate, and therefore to whom they are all necessarily related. That necessity, once it is fully understood, is rational and allows existents to be inferred from each other and, ultimately, from God. In effect, the totality of intelligibles is structured syllogistically and human knowledge consists of the mind's reception and grasp of intelligible being. Since knowledge consists of grasping syllogistically structured intelligibles, it requires the use of reasoning to follow the relations between intelligibles. Among these intelligibles are first principles that include both concepts such as 'the existent', 'the thing' and 'the necessary', that make up the categories, and the truths of logic, including the first-figure syllogistics, all of which are basic, primitive and obvious. They cannot be explained further since all explanation and thought proceeds only on their basis. The rules of logic are also crucial to human development.Ibn Sina's stand on the fundamental nature of categorical concepts and logical forms follows central features of Aristotle's thought in the Prior Analytics (see ARISTOTLE §§4-7). Borrowing from Aristotle, he also singles out a capacity for a mental act in which the knower spontaneously hits upon the middle term of a syllogism. Since rational arguments proceed syllogistically, the ability to hit upon the middle term is the ability to move an argument forward by seeing how given premises yield appropriate conclusions. It allows the person possessing this ability to develop arguments, to recognize the inferential relations between syllogisms. Moreover, since reality is structured syllogistically, the ability to hit upon the middle term and to develop arguments is crucial to moving knowledge of reality forward.Ibn Sina holds that it is important to gain knowledge. Grasp of the intelligibles determines the fate of the rational soul in the hereafter, and therefore is crucial to human activity. When the human intellect grasps these intelligibles it comes into contact with the Active Intellect, a level of being that emanates ultimately from God, and receives a 'divine effluence'. People may be ordered according to their capacity for gaining knowledge, and thus by their possession and development of the capacity for hitting on the middle term. At the highest point is the prophet, who knows the intelligibles all at once, or nearly so. He has a pure rational soul and can know the intelligibles in their proper syllogistic order, including their middle terms. At the other end lies the impure person lacking in the capacity for developing arguments. Most people are in between these extremes, but they may improve their capacity for grasping the middle term by developing a balanced temperament and purity of soul (see LOGIC IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY §1).In relation to the older debate about the respective scopes of grammar and logic, Ibn Sina argues that since logic deals with concepts that can be abstracted from sensible material, it also escapes the contingencies of the latter. Language and grammar govern sensible material and therefore have a different domain; indeed, languages are various and their rules of operation, their grasp of sensible material, are likewise articulated variously (see LANGUAGE, PHILOSOPHY OF). Nevertheless, languages make available the abstracted concepts whose operation is governed by logic; yet if language deals with contingencies, it is not clear how it can grasp or make available the objects of logic. At times, as for example in al-Isharat, Ibn Sina suggests that languages generally share a structure.3 Theory of knowledgeIn his theory of knowledge, Ibn Sina identifies the mental faculties of the soul in terms of their epistemological function. As the discussion of logic in §2 has already suggested, knowledge begins with abstraction. Sense perception, being already mental, is the form of the object perceived (see SENSE AND REFERENCE §I). Sense perception responds to the particular with its given form and material accidents. As a mental event, being a perception of an object rather than the object itself, perception occurs in the particular. To analyse this response, classifying its formal features in abstraction from material accidents, we must both retain the images given by sensation and also manipulate them by disconnecting parts and aligning them according to their formal and other properties. However, retention and manipulation are distinct epistemological functions, and cannot depend on the same psychological faculty; therefore Ibn Sina distinguishes faculties of relation and manipulation as appropriate to those diverse epistemological functions (see EPISTEMOLOGY IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY §4).Ibn Sina identifies the retentive faculty as 'representation' and charges the imagination with the task of reproducing and manipulating images. To conceptualize our experience and to order it according to its qualities, we must have and be able to reinvoke images of what we experienced but is now absent. For this we need sensation and representation at least; in addition, to order and classify the content of representation, we must be able to discriminate, separate out and recombine parts of images, and therefore must possess imagination and reason. To think about a black flag we must be able to analyse its colour, separating this quality from others, or its part in the image from other images, and classify it with other black things, thereby showing that the concept of black applies to all such objects and their images. Imagination carries out this manipulation, allowing us to produce images of objects we have not seen in fact out of the images of things we have experienced, and thereby also generating images for intelligibles and prophecies.Beyond sense perception, retention and imagination, Ibn Sina locates estimation (wahm). This is a faculty for perceiving non-sensible 'intentions that exist in the individual sensible objects'. A sheep flees a wolf because it estimates that the animal may do it harm; this estimation is more than representation and imagination, since it includes an intention that is additional to the perceived and abstracted form and concept of the animal. Finally, there may be a faculty that retains the content of wahm, the meanings of images. Ibn Sina also relies on a faculty of common sense, involving awareness of the work and products of all the other faculties, which interrelates these features.Of these faculties, imagination has a principal role in intellection. Its comparison and construction of images with given meanings gives it access to universals in that it is able to think of the universal by manipulating images (see UNIVERSALS). However, Ibn Sina explains this process of grasping the universal, this emergence of the universal in the human mind, as the result of an action on the mind by the Active Intellect. This intellect is the last of ten cosmic intellects that stand below God. In other words, the manipulation of images does not by itself procure a grasp of universals so much as train the mind to think the universals when they are given to the mind by the Active Intellect. Once achieved, the processes undergone in training inform the mind so that the latter can attend directly to the Active Intellect when required. Such direct access is crucial since the soul lacks any faculty for retaining universals and therefore repeatedly needs fresh access to the Active Intellect.As the highest point above the Active Intellect, God, the pure intellect, is also the highest object of human knowledge. All sense experience, logic and the faculties of the human soul are therefore directed at grasping the fundamental structure of reality as it emanates from that source and, through various levels of being down to the Active Intellect, becomes available to human thought through reason or, in the case of prophets, intuition. By this conception, then, there is a close relation between logic, thought, experience, the grasp of the ultimate structure of reality and an understanding of God. As the highest and purest intellect, God is the source of all the existent things in the world. The latter emanate from that pure high intellect, and they are ordered according to a necessity that we can grasp by the use of rational conceptual thought (see NEOPLATONISM IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY). These interconnections become clearer in Ibn Sina's metaphysics.4 MetaphysicsMetaphysics examines existence as such, 'absolute existence' (al-wujud al-matlaq) or existence so far as it exists. Ibn Sina relies on the one hand on the distinction in Aristotle's Prior Analytics between the principles basic to a scientific or mathematical grasp of the world, including the four causes, and on the other hand the subject of metaphysics, the prime or ultimate cause of all things - God. In relation to the first issue, Ibn Sina recognizes that observation of regularities in nature fails to establish their necessity. At best it evinces the existence of a relation of concomitance between events. To establish the necessity implicated in causality, we must recognize that merely accidental regularities would be unlikely to occur always, or even at all, and certainly not with the regularity that events can exhibit (see CAUSALITY AND NECESSITY IN ISLAMIC THOUGHT). Thus, we may expect that such regularities must be the necessary result of the essential properties of the objects in question.In developing this distinction between the principles and subject of metaphysics, Ibn Sina makes another distinction between essence and existence, one that applies to everything except God. Essence and existence are distinct in that we cannot infer from the essence of something that it must exist (see EXISTENCE). Essence considers only the nature of things, and while this may be realized in particular real circumstances or as an item in the mind with its attendant conditions, nevertheless essence can be considered for itself apart from that mental and physical realization. Essences exist in supra-human intelligences and also in the human mind. Further, if essence is distinct from existence in the way Ibn Sina is proposing, then both the existence and the nonexistence of the essence may occur, and each may call for explanation.5 The existence of GodThe above distinctions enter into the central subject matter of metaphysics, that is, God and the proof of his existence. Scholars propose that the most detailed and comprehensive of Ibn Sina's arguments for God's existence occurs in the 'Metaphysics' section of al-Shifa' (Gutas 1988; Mamura 1962; Morewedge 1972). We know from the Categories of Aristotle that existence is either necessary or possible. If an existence were only possible, then we could argue that it would presuppose a necessary existence, for as a merely possible existence, it need not have existed and would need some additional factor to bring about its existence rather than its non-existence. That is, the possible existence, in order to be existent, must have been necessitated by something else. Yet that something else cannot be another merely possible existence since the latter would itself stand in need of some other necessitation in order to bring it about. or would lead to an infinite regress without explaining why the merely possible existence does exist. From this point, Ibn Sina proposes that an essential cause and its effect will coexist and cannot be part of an infinite chain; the nexus of causes and effects must have a first cause, which exists necessarily for itself: God (see GOD, ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF § I ).From his proof of God's existence. Ibn Sina goes on to explain how the world and its order emanates from God. Whereas ARISTOTLE (§ 16) himself did not relate the Active Intellect that may be implied in On the Soul III with the first, ever-thinking cause of the universal found in Book XII of his Metaphysics, later commentators on his work (for example, ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS) identified the two, making the Active Intellect, the principle that brings about the passage of the human intellect from possibility to actuality, into the first cause of the universe. Together with this is the proof of God's existence that sees him not only as the prime mover but also as the first existent. God's self-knowledge consist in an eternal act that results in or brings about a first intelligence or awareness. This first intelligence conceives or cognizes the necessity of God's existence, the necessity of its own existence, and its own existence as possible. From these acts of conception, other existents arise: another intelligence, a celestial soul and a celestial body, respectively. The last constitutes the first sphere of the universe, and when the second intelligence engages in its own cognitive act, it constitutes the level of fixed stars as well as another level of intelligence that, in turn, produces another intelligence and another level of body. The last such intelligence that emanates from the successive acts of knowing is the Active Intellect, that produces our world. Such emanation cannot continue indefinitely; although being may proceed from intelligence, not every intelligence containing the same aspects will produce the same effects. Successive intelligences have diminished power. and the active intellect, standing tenth in the hierarchy, no longer possesses the power to emanate eternal beings.None of these proposals by Ibn Sina give grounds for supposing that he was committed to mysticism (for an opposing view, see MYSTICAL PHILOSOPHY IN ISLAM § I). His so called 'Eastern philosophy', usually understood to contain his mystical doctrines, seems to be an entirely Western invention that over the last two hundred years has been read into Ibn Sina's work (see Gutas 1988). Nevertheless, Ibn Sina combines his Aristotelianism with a religious interest, seeking to explain prophecy as having its basis in a direct openness of the prophet's mind to the Active Intellect, through which the middle terms of syllogisms, the syllogisms themselves and their conclusions become available without the procedure of working out proofs. Sometimes the prophet gains insight through imagination, and expresses his insight in figurative terms. It is also possible for the imagination to gain contact with the souls of the higher spheres, allowing the prophet to envisage the future in some figurative form. There may also be other varieties of prophecy.6 The soulIn all these dealings with prophecy, knowledge and metaphysics, Ibn Sina takes it that the entity involved is the human soul. In al-Shifa', he proposes that the soul must be an incorporeal substance because intellectual thoughts themselves are indivisible. Presumably he means that a coherent thought, involving concepts in some determinate order, cannot be had in parts by different intellects and still remain a single coherent thought. In order to be a coherent single unity, a coherent thought must be had by a single, unified intellect rather than, for example, one intellect having one part of the thought, another soul a separate part of the thought and yet a third intellect having a third distinct part of the same thought. In other words, a coherent thought is indivisible and can be present as such only to an intellect that is similarly unified or indivisible. However, corporeal matter is divisible; therefore the indivisible intellect that is necessary for coherent thought cannot be corporeal. It must therefore be incorporeal, since those are the only two available possibilities.For Ibn Sina, that the soul is incorporeal implies also that it must be immortal: the decay and destruction of the body does not affect the soul. There are basically three relations to the corporeal body that might also threaten the soul but, Ibn Sina proposes, none of these relations holds true of the incorporeal soul, which therefore must be immortal. If the body were a cause of the soul's existence, or if body and soul depended on each other necessarily for their existence, or if the soul logically depended on the body, then the destruction or decay of the body would determine the existence of the soul. However, the body is not a cause of the soul in any of the four senses of cause; both are substances, corporeal and incorporeal, and therefore as substances they must be independent of each other; and the body changes and decays as a result of its independent causes and substances, not because of changes in the soul, and therefore it does not follow that any change in the body, including death, must determine the existence of the soul. Even if the emergence of the human soul implies a role for the body, the role of this corporeal matter is only accidental.To this explanation that the destruction of the body does not entail or cause the destruction of the soul, Ibn Sina adds an argument that the destruction of the soul cannot be caused by anything. Composite existing objects are subject to destruction; by contrast, the soul as a simple incorporeal being is not subject to destruction. Moreover, since the soul is not a compound of matter and form, it may be generated but it does not suffer the destruction that afflicts all generated things that are composed of form and matter. Similarly, even if we could identify the soul as a compound, for it to have unity that compound must itself be integrated as a unity, and the principle of this unity of the soul must be simple; and, so far as the principle involves an ontological commitment to existence, being simple and incorporeal it must therefore be indestructible (see SOUL IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY).7 Reward and punishmentFrom the indestructibility of the soul arise questions about the character of the soul, what the soul may expect in a world emanating from God, and what its position will be in the cosmic system. Since Ibn Sina maintains that souls retain their identity into immortality, we may also ask about their destiny and how this is determined. Finally, since Ibn Sina also wants to ascribe punishment and reward to such souls, he needs to explain how there may be both destiny and punishment.The need for punishment depends on the possibility of evil, and Ibn Sina's examination maintains that moral and other evils afflict individuals rather than species. Evils are usually an accidental result of things that otherwise produce good. God produces more good than evil when he produces this sublunary world, and abandoning an overwhelmingly good practice because of a 'rare evil' would be a privation of good. For example, fire is useful and therefore good, even if it harms people on occasion (see EVIL, PROBLEM OF). God might have created a world in another existence that was entirely free of the evil present in this one, but that would preclude all the greater goods available in this world, despite the rare evil it also contains. Thus, God generates a world that contains good and evil and the agent, the soul. acts in this world; the rewards and punishments it gains in its existence beyond this world are the result of its choices in this world, and there can be both destiny and punishment because the world and its order are precisely what give souls a choice between good and evil.8 Poetry, character and societyIdentifying poetic language as imaginative, Ibn Sina relies on the ability of the faculty of imagination to construct images to argue that poetic language can bear a distinction between premises, argument and conclusion, and allows for a conception of poetic syllogism. Aristotle's definition of a syllogism was that if certain statements are accepted, then certain other statements must also necessarily be accepted (see ARISTOTLE §5). To explain this syllogistic structure of poetic language, Ibn Sina first identifies poetic premises as resemblances formed by poets that produce 'an astonishing effect of distress or pleasure' (see POETRY).The resemblances essayed by poets and the comparisons they put forward in poems, when these are striking, original and so on, produce an 'astonishing effect' or 'feeling of wonder' in the listener or reader. 'The evening of life' compares the spans of a day and a life, bringing the connotations of the day to explain some characteristics of a lifespan. To find this use of poetic language meaningful, the suggestion is that we need to see the comparison as the conclusion of a syllogism. A premise of this syllogism would be that days have a span that resembles or is comparable to the progression of a life. This resemblance is striking, novel and insightful, and understanding its juxtaposition of days and lives leads subjects to feel wonder or astonishment. Next, pleasure occurs in this consid­eration of the poetic syllogism as the basis of our imaginative assent, paralleling assent in, for example, the demonstrative syllogism: once we have accepted the premise, we are led to accept the associations and imaginative constructions that result; once we accept the comparison between days and lives, we can understand and appreciate the comparison between old age and evening. Ibn Sina also finds other parallels between poetic language and meaningful arguments, showing that pleasure in imaginative assent can be expected of other subjects; assent is therefore more than an expression of personal preferences. This validity of poetic language makes it possible for Ibn Sina to argue that beauty in poetic language has a moral value that sustains and depends on relations of justice between autonomous members of a community. In his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics, however, he combines this with a claim that different kinds of poetic language will suit different kinds of characters. Comedy suits people who are base and uncouth. while tragedy attracts an audience of noble characters (see AESTHETICS IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY).9 Links to the WestLatin versions of some of Ibn Sina's works began to appear in the early thirteenth century. The best known philosophical work to be translated was his Kitab al-shifa', although the translation did not include the sections on mathematics or large sections of the logic. Translations made at Toledo include the Kitab al-najat and the Kitab al-ilahiyat(Metaphysics) in its entirety. Other sections on natural science were translated at Burgos and for the King of Sicily. GERARD OF CREMONA translated Ibn Sina's al-Qanun f'1-tibb (Canon on Medicine). At Barcelona, another philosophical work, part of the Kitab al-nafs (Book of the Soul), was translated early in the fourteenth century. His late work on logic, al-Isharat wa-'l-tanbihat, seems to have been translated in part and is cited in other works. His commentaries on On theSoul were known to Thomas AQUINAS and ALBERT THE GREAT, who cite them extensively in their own discussions.These and other translations of Ibn Sina's works made up the core of a body of literature that was available for study. By the early thirteenth century, his works were studied not only in relation to Neoplatonists such as AUGUSTINE and DUNS SCOTUS, but were used also in study of ARISTOTLE. Consequently, they were banned in 1210 when the synod at Paris prohibited the reading of Aristotle and of 'summae' and 'commenta' of his work. The force of the ban was local and only covered the teaching of this subject: the texts were read and taught at Toulouse in 1229. As late as the sixteenth century there were other translations of short works by Ibn Sina into Latin, for example by Andrea Alpago of Belluno (see ARISTOTELIANISM, MEDIEVAL §3; ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY: TRANSMISSION INTO WESTERN EUROPE; TRANSLATORS).See also: AESTHETICS IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY; ARISTOTELIANISM IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY; EPISTEMOLOGY IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY; LOGIC IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY; SOUL IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY; ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY: TRANSMISSION INTO WESTERN EUROPEList of worksIbn Sina (980-1037) Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is (The Life of Ibn Sina), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Ibn Sina's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden: Brill, 1988.)- (980-1037) al-Isharat wa-'l-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic,Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4,London: Kegan Paul International, 1996. (The English translation is very useful for what it shows of the philosopher's conception of logic, the varieties of syllogism, premises and so on.)- (980-1037) al-Qanun fi'l-tibb (Canon on Medi­cine), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Ibn Sina's work on medicine.)(980-1037) Risalah fi sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. (Provides insights into a neglected area of Ibn Sina's thought.)(980-1037) Danishnama-i 'ala'i (The Book of Scientific Knowledge), ed. and trans. P Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973. (This is a translation of a metaphysical work in Persian.)- (c 1014-20) al-Shifa' (Healing). (Ibn Sina's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020. Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952-83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour; some of these editions are given below.)- (c.1014-20) al-Mantiq (Logic), Part 1, al­Madkhal (Isag6ge), ed. G. Anawati, M. El-Khodeiri and F. al-Ahwani, Cairo: al-Matba'ah al-Amiriyah, 1952; trans. N. Shehaby, The Propositional Logic of Ibn Sina, Dordrecht: Reidel, 1973. (Volume I, Part 1of al-Shifa'.)- (c 1014-20) al-'Ibarah (Interpretation), ed. M. El-Khodeiri, Cairo: Dar al-Katib al-Arabi, 1970. (Volume 1, Part 3 of al-Shifa'.)- (c 1014-20) al-Qiyas (Syllogism), ed. S. Zayed and I. Madkour, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1964. (Volume I, Part 4 of al-Shifa'.)- (c 1014-20) al-Burhan (Demonstration), ed. A.E. Affifi, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1956. (Volume I, Part 5 of al-Shifa'.)(c 1014-20) al-Jadal (Dialectic), ed. A.F Al-Ehwany, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1965. (Volume I, Part 7 ofal-Shifa'.)- (c 1014-20) al-Khatabah (Rhetoric), ed. S. Salim, Cairo: Imprimerie Nationale, 1954. (Volume I, Part 8 of al-Shifa'.)- (c.1014-20) al-Ilahiyat (Theology), ed. M.Y. Moussa, S. Dunya and S. Zayed, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1960; ed. and trans. R.M. Savory and D. A. Agius, 'Ibn Sina on Primary Concepts in the Metaphysics of al-Shifa', in Logikos Islamikos, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984; trans. G.C. Anawati, La metaphysique du Shifa', Etudes Musulmanes 21, 27, Paris: Vrin, 1978, 1985. (This is the metaphysics of al-Shifa', Volume I, Book 5.)- (c 1014-20) al-Nafs (The Soul), ed. G.C. Anawati and S. Zayed, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1975; ed. F. Rahman, Avicenna's De Anima, Being the Psychological Part of Kitab al-Shifa', London: Oxford University Press, 1959. (Volume 1, part 6 of al-Shifa'.)- (c 1014-20) Kitab al-najat (The Book of Salvation), trans. F. Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The pyschology of al-Shifa'.)References and further reading* Alexander of Aphrodisias (c 200) De anima (On the Soul), in Scripta minora 2.1, ed. I. Bruns, Berlin, 1887; ed. A.P. Fontinis, The De Anima of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Washington, DC: University Press ofAmerica, 1979. (Important later commentary on Aristotle.)Davidson, H.A. (1992) Alfarabi, Avicenna and Averroes on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect, and Theories of the Human Intellect, New York: Oxford University Press (A thorough consideration of Ibn Sina's theory of the intellects in relation to Hellenistic and Arabic philosophers.)Fakhry, M. (1993) Ethical Theories in Islam, 2nd edn, Leiden: Brill. (Contains material on Ibn Sina's ethical thought.)Goodman, L. (1992) Avicenna, London: Routledge. (A useful introduction to central features of Ibn Sina's philosophical theories.)* Gutas, D. (1988) Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition, Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philo­sophical Works,Leiden: Brill. (An excellent account of the considerations that entered into the con­struction of Ibn Sina's corpus, the book contains translations of a number of smaller texts, a careful consideration of method and sharp criticisms of, among other things, ascriptions of mysticism to Ibn Sina. This is probably the most useful guide to an engagement with the philosopher's work currently available in English.)Inati, S. (1996) 'Ibn Sina', in S.H. Nasr and O, Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy, London: Routledge, ch. 16, 231-L6. (Comprehensive guide to his analytical thought.)Janssens, J.L. (1991) An Annotated Bibliography on Ibn Sina (1970-1989), Including Arabic and Persian Publications and Turkish and Russian references, Leuven: University of Leuven Press. (An indispensible tool for study of Ibn Sina and recent work on the philosopher, though it will soon need to be updated.)Kemal, S. (1991) The Poetics of Alfarabi and Avicenna,Leiden: Brill. (A philosophical study of Ibn Sina's philosophical poetics and its relation to epistemology and morality.)* Mamura, M.E. (1962) 'Some Aspects of Avicenna's Theory of God's Knowledge of Particulars', Journal of the American Oriental Society 82: 299-312. (This paper, along with those of Morewedge (1972) and Rahman (1958), are seminal to contemporary understanding of Ibn Sina's thought.)(1980) 'Avicenna's Proof from Contingency for God's Existence in the Metaphysics of al Shifa', Medieval Studies 42: 337-52. (A clear exposition of the proof.)* Morewedge, P (1972) 'Philosophical Analysis and Ibn Sina's "Essence-Existence" distinction'. Journal of the American Oriental Society 92: 425-35. (A welcome explanation ofthe implications of a distinction central to Ibn Sina's proof of God's existence.)Nasr, S. H. (1996) 'Ibn Sina's Oriental Philosophy', in S.H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy,London: Routledge, ch. 17, 247-51. (Concise and interesting defence of the idea that Ibn Sina really did have distinctive system of mystical philosophy.)Rahman, F. (1958) 'Essence and Existence in Avicenna', Medieval and Renaissance Studies 4: 1-16. (A version also appears in Hamdard Islamicus 4 (1): 3-14. The paper considers the philosophical usefulness of the distinction of essence from existence.)السيرة بقلم تلميذ صاحب السيرة:قال الشيخ أبو عبيد: فهذا ما حكاه لي الشيخ من لفظه ، ومن هنا ماشاهدته أنا من أحواله والله الموفقّ .كان بجرجان رجل يقال له أبو محمد الشيرازي يحب هذه العلوم ، وقد اشترى للشيخ داراً في جواره ، وأنزله فيها ؛ وكنت أنا أختلف إليه كلّ يوم فأقرأ المجسطي وأستملي المنطق، فأملى علي المختصر الأوسط في المنطق ، وصنّف لأبي محمد الشيرازي كتاب المبدأ والمعاد ، وكتاب الأرصاد الكلية ؛ وصنف هناك كتباً كثيرة كأول القانون ، ومختصر " المجسطي " ، وكثيراً من الرسائل . ثم صنف في أرض[1] الجبل باقي كتبه وهذا فهرست[2] جميع كتبه:(1) كتاب المجموع مجلّدة (2) كتاب الحاصل والمحصولعشرون مجلّدة (3) كتاب البر والاثم مجلدتان (4) كتاب الشفاء ثماني عشرة مجلّدة (5) كتاب القانون أربع عشرة مجلّدة (6) كتاب الارصاد الكلّيّة مجلّدة (7) كتاب الانصاف عشرون مجلّدة (8) كتاب النجاة ثلاث مجلّدات (9) كتاب الهداية مجلّدة (10) كتاب الاشارات مجلّدة (11) كتاب المختصر الأوسط مجلّدة (12) كتاب العلائىّ مجلّدة (13) كتابالقولنج مجلّدة (14) كتاب لسان العرب عشر مجلّدات (15) كتاب الادوية القلبيّة مجلّدة (16) كتاب الموجز مجلّدة (17) بعض الحكمة المشرقيّة مجلّدة (18) كتاب بيان ذوات الجهة مجلّدة (19) كتاب المعاد مجلّدة (20) كتاب المبدأ والمعاد مجلّدة (21) كتاب المباحثاتمجلّدة. ومن رسائله : (22) رسالة القضاء والقدر (23) الآلة الرصديّة (24) غرض قاطيغوريس (25) المنطق بالشعر (26) القصائد في العظمة والحكمة (27) رسالة في الحروف(28) تعقّب المواضع الجدليّة (29) مختصر أقليدس (30) مختصر النبض بالعجمية (31) الحدود (32) الأجرام السماويّة (33) الاشارة الى علم المنطق (34) أقسام الحكمة (35) النهاية واللانهاية (36) عهد كتبه لنفسه (37) حيّ بن يقظان (38) في أنّ أبعاد الجسم غير ذاتيّة له (39) الكلام في الهندبا وله خطبة (40) في أنه لا يجوز أن يكون شيء واحد جوهرا وعرضا (41) في أن علم زيد غير علم عمرو (42) رسائل له إخوانيّة وسلطانيّة (43) رسائل في مسائل جرت بينه وبين بعض الفضلاء (44) كتاب الحواشى على القانون (45) كتاب عيون الحكمة (46) كتابالشبكة والطير .ثم انتقل إلى الري ، واتصل بخدمة السيّدة وابنها[3] مجد الدولة ، وعرفوه بسبب كتب وصلت معه تتضمن تعريف قدره . وكان بمجد الدولة إذ ذاك علّة[4] السوداء ؛ وصنف هناك كتاب المعاد. وأقام بها إلى أن قصدها شمس الدولة ؛ بعد قتل هلال بن بدر ابن حسنويه ، وهزيمة عسكر بغداد .ثم اتفقت[5] له أسباب أوجبت خروجه إلى قزوين ، ومنها إلى همذان ، واتصاله بخدمة كذبانويه ، والنظر في أسبابها.ثم اتفق معرفة شمس الدولة وإحضاره مجلسه ، بسبب قولنج كان قد أصابه ، وعالجه حتى شفاه الله ؛ وفاز من تلك المجالس بخلع كثيرة ؛ ورجع إلى داره بعد ما أقام هناك أربعين يوماً بلياليها ، وصار من ندماء الأمير.ثم اتفق نهوض الأمير إلى قرمسين لحرب عنّاز ، وخرج الشيخ في خدمته ، ثم توجه نحو همذان منهزماً راجعاً.ثم سألوه تقلد الوزارة فتقلدها. ثم اتفق تشويش العسكر عليه ، وإشفاقهم منه على أنفسهم ، فكبسوا داره ، وأخذوه إلى الحبس ، وأغاروا على أسبابه ، وأخذوا جميع ما كان يملكه وساموا الأمير قتله ، فامتنع عن[6] قتله ، وعدل إلى نفيه عن الدولة[7] ، طلباً لمرضاتهم . فتوارى الشيخ في دار أبي سعد بن دخدول[8] أربعين يوماً ؛ فعاود القولنج الأمير شمس الدولة ، وطلب الشيخ ، فحضر مجلسه ، واعتذر الأمير [إليه] بكلّ الاعتذار ، فاشتغل بمعالجته ، وأقام عنده مكرّما مبجلا ، وأُعيدت الوزارة إليه ثانياً.ثم سألته أنا شرح كتاب أرسطو[طاليس] فذكر أنه لا فراغ له إلى ذلك في ذلك الوقت ، »ولكن إنْ رضيتَ مني بتصنيف كتلب أورد فيه ما صح عندي من هذه العلوم ، بلا مناظرة مع المخالفين ، ولا الاشتغال بالرد عليهم ، فعلتُ ذلك. « ؛ فرضيت به.فابتدأ بالطبعيّات من كتاب سماه كتاب الشفاء. وكان قد صنّف الكتاب الأوّل من القانون. فكان يجتمع كلّ ليلة في داره طلبة العلم ، وكنت أقرأ من الشفاء نوبة ، وكان يقرأ غيري من القانون نوبة ، فإذا فرغنا حضر المغنّون على اختلاف طبقاتهم ، وهيء[9] مجلس الشراب بآلاته ، وكنا نشتغل به . وكان التدريس بالليل لعدم الفراغ بالنهار ، خدمةً للأمير . فقضينا على ذلك زمناً.ثم توجه شمس الدولة إلى الطارم لحرب أميرها ، وعاوده القولنج في قرب ذلك الموضع ، وأشتدّت علته[10] ، وانضاف اليه أمراض أخر جلبها سوء تدبيره ، وقلة قبوله من الشيخ ، فخاف العسكر وفاته ، فرجعوا به طالبين همذان في المهد ، فتُوُفّي في الطريق.ثمّ بُوْيِع[11] ابن شمس الدولة ، وطلبوا استيزار الشيخ ، فأبى عليهم . وكاتب[12] علاء الدولة يطلب خدمته سرّاً ، والمصير إليه ، والانضمام إلى جانبه .وأقام في دار أبي غالب العطّار متواريا. وطلبتُ منه إتمام كتاب الشفاء فاستحضر أبا غالب ، وطلب منه الكاغد والمحبر فأحضرهما . وكتب الشيخ في قريب من[13] عشرين جزءا مقدار الثمن رءوس المسائل ، وبقي فيه يومين حتّى كتب رؤوس المسائل [كلها] ، بلا كتاب يحضره ، ولا أصل يرجع إليه ، بل من حفظه و [عن] ظهر قلبه . ثم ترك تلك الأجزاء بين يديه ، وأخذ الكاغد ، فكان ينظر في كلّّ مسألة ، ويكتب شرحها . فكان يكتب كلّ يوم خمسين ورقة . حتى[14] [أتى] على جميع الطبيعيات والإلهيّات ، ما خلا كتاب الحيوان. وابتدأ بالمنطق ، وكتب منه جزءا.ثمّ اتّهمه تاج الملك بمكاتبة علاء الدولة ، وأنكر عليه ذلك ، وحثّ في طلبه ، فدلّ عليه بعض أعدائه ، فأخذوه وحملوه إلى قلعة يقال لها فَرْدَجَان . وأنشد هناك قصيدة فيها[15] :دخولي باليقين كما تراه وكلّ الشكّ في أمر الخروجوبقي فيها أربعة أشهر.ثمّ قصد علاء الدولة همذان ، فأخذها . وانهزم تاج الملك ، ومرّ إلى تلك القلعة بعينها. ثمّ رجع علاء الدولة عن همذان ، وعاد تاج الملك بن شمس الدولة إلى همذان ، واستصحب الشيخ معه ، ونزل في دار العلوي ، واشتغل بتصنيف المنطق من كتاب الشفاء . وكان قد صنف بالقلعة كتاب الهداية ، ورسالة حي بن يقظان وكتاب القولنج . وأما الأدوية القلبية فإنما صنفها أول وروده [إلى] همذان.وكان تقضى على هذا زمان ، وتاج المك في أثناء هذا يمنّيه بمواعيد جميلة . ثمّ عزم الشيخ على التوجّه إلى إصفهان ، فخرج متنكراً ، وأنا معه وأخوه في زي الصوفية ، إلى أن وصلنا إلى طبران[16] عل باب إصفهان ، بعد أن قاسينا شدائد في الطريق ، فاستقبلنا أصداقاء الشيخ ، وندماء الأمير علاء الدولة وخواصه ، وحمل إليه الثياب والمراكب الخاصة ، وأنزل في محلّة يقال لها كون[17] كنبذ ، في دار عبد الله بن بابي[18] ، وفيها من الآلات والفرش ما يحتاج إليه ، فصادف[19] من مجلسه الإكرام والإعزاز الذي يستحقه[20] مثله.ثم رسم الأمير علاء الدولة ليالي الجمعات مجلس النظر بين يديه ، فحضره سائر العلماء على اختلاف طبقاتهم ، و الشيخ في جملتهم ، فما كان يُطاق في شيء من العلوم.واشتغل بإصفهان بتتميم كتاب الشفاء ، ففرغ من المنطق والمجسطي. وكان قد اختصر أوقليدس والأرثماطيقي والموسيقي ؛ فأورد[21] في كلّ كتاب من الرياضيات زيادات رأى أن الحاجة إليها داعية . أمّا في المجسطي فأورد عشرة أشكال في اختلاف المنظر ، وأورد في آخر المجسطي من[22] علم الهيئة أشياء لم يسبق إليها . وأورد في أوقليدس شبهاً[23] ، وفي الأرثماطيقي خواص حسنة ، وفي الموسيقى مسائل غفل عنها الأولون . وتمّ كتاب الشفاء ما خلا كتابي النبات والحيوان ، فإنه صنّفهما في السنة التي توجه فيها علاء الدولة إلى سابورخواست في الطريق . وصنف أيضاً في الطريق كتاب النجاة.واختص بعلاء الدولة وصار من ندمائه ، إلى أن عزم علاء الدولة على قصد همذان . وخرج الشيخ في الصحبة ، فجرى ليلة بين يدي علاء الدولة ذكر الخلل الحاصل في التقاويم المعمولة بحسب الأرصاد القديمة . فأمر الأمير الشيخ برصد هذه الكواكب ، وأطلق من الأموال ما يحتاج إليه ، وابتدأ الشيخ به . وولاني اتخاذ آلاتها ، واستخدام صنّاعها ، حتى ظهر كثير من المسائل . وكان يقع الخلل في أمر الأرصاد[24] لكثرة الأسفار وعوائقها . وصنّف الشيخ بإصفهان كتاب[25] العلائي.وكان من عجائب الشيخ أني [صحبته و] خدمته خمساً وعشرين سنة ، فما رأيته إذا وقع له كتاب مجدّد ينظر فيه على الولاء ، بل كان يقصد المواضع الصعبة منه ، والمسائل المشكلة ، فينظر ما قاله مصنفه فيها ، فيتبين مرتبته في العلم ، ودرجته في الفهم .وكان الشيخ جالساً يوماً بين يدي الأمير ، وأبو منصور الجبان[26] حاضر ، فجرى في اللغة مسألة تكلم الشيخ فيها بما حضره ، فالتفت أبو منصور إلى الشيخ وقال له : »أنت فيلسوف وحكيم ، ولكن لم تقرأ من اللغة ما يُرضَى[27] كلامك فيها« فاستنكف الشيخ من [هذا] الكلام، وتوفر على درس كتب اللغة ثلاث سنين . واستدعى[28] بكتاب تهذيب اللغة من خراسان ، من تصنيف أبي منصور الأزهري . فبلغ الشيخ في اللغة طبقة قلما يتفق مثلها . وأنشد[29] ثلاث قصائد ضمنها ألفاظاً غريبة في[30] اللغة ، وكتب ثلاثة كتب : أحدها على طريقة ابن العميد ، والآخر على طريقة الصابي ، والآخر على طريقة الصاحب ، وأمر بتجليدها وإخلاق جلدها ؛ ثم أوعز الأمير بعرض[31] تلك المجلّدة على أبي منصور الجبائي ، وذكر : إنا[32] ظفرنا بهذه المجلّدة في الصحراء وقت الصيد ، فيجب أن تتفقدها وتقول لنا ما فيها . فنظر فيها أبو منصور ، وأشكل[33] عليه كثير مما فيها . فقال له الشيخ : ما[34] تجهله من هذا الكتاب ، فهو مذكور في الموضع الفلاني من كتب اللغة . وذكر له كتباً معروفة في اللغة كان الشيخ قد حفظ تلك الألفاظ منها . وكان أبو منصور مجزفاً فيما يورده من اللغة ، غير ثقة فيها . ففطن أنَّ تلك الرسائل من تصنيف الشيخ ، وأن الذي حمله عليه ما جبهه به ذلك اليوم ، فتنصل واعتذر إليه . ثم صنف الشيخ كتاباً في اللغة سماه لسان العرب ،لم يصنف في اللغة مثله ، ولم ينقله في البياض . ثم[35] توفي ، فبقي الكتاب على[36] مسودته لا يهتدي أحد إلى ترتيبه.وكان قد حصل للشيخ تجارب كثيرة فيما باشر[37] من المعالجات ، وعزم[38] على تدوينها في كتاب القانون . [وكان قد علقها على أجزاء فضاعت قبل تمام كتاب القانون][39]، من ذلك أنه تصدع[40] يوماً فتصور أن مادة تريد النزول إلى حجاب رأسه ، وأنه لا يأمن ورماً يحصل[41] فيه ، فأمر بإحضار ثلج كثير ، ودقة ولفه في خرقة ، وغطى بها رأسه ، وفعل [42] ذلك حتى قوي الموضع ، وامتنع عن حلول[43] تلك المادة ، وعوفي.ومن ذلك أن امرأة مسلولة بخوارزم أمرها أن لا تتناول شيئاً من الأدوية سوى جلنجبين السكر[44] ، حتى تناولت على الأيام مقدار مائة منًّ ، وشفيت[45].وكان[46] الشيخ قد صنف بجرجان المختصر الأصغر في المنطق ، وهو الذي وضعه بعد ذلك في أول النجاة ، ووقعت نسخة إلى شيراز ، ونظر[47] فيها جماعةٌ من أهل العلم هناك ، فوقعت لهم الشبه في مسائل منها ، وكتبوها[48] على جزء . وكان القاضي بشيراز من جملة القوم ، فأنفذ بالجزء إلى أبي القاسم الكرماني صاحب إبراهيم بن بابا الديلمي المشتغل بعلم الباطن[49] ، فأضاف[50] إليه كتاباً إلى [الشيخ] أبي القاسم ، وأنفذهما مع[51] ركابي قاصيده[52] ، وسأله عرض الجزء على الشيخ ، وينجز جوابه فيه ، فحضر الشيخ أبو القاسم في صائف عند اصفرار الشمس عند الشيخ[53] ، وعرض عليه الكتاب والجزء ، فقرأ الكتاب ورده عليه ، وترك الجزء بين يديه ، والناس يتحدثون وهو ينظر فيه ، ثم خرج أبو القاسم ؛ وأمرني الشيخ بإحضار البياض ، فعددت له[54] خمسة أجزاء ، كل واحد[55] عشرة أوراق بالربع الفرعوني . وصلينا العشاء ، وقدم الشمع ، وأمرنا[56] بإحضار الشراب ، وأجلسني وأخاه ، وأمرنا[57] بتناول الشراب ، وابتدأ هو بجواب تلك المسائل ، وكان يكتب ويشرب إلى نصف الليل ، حتى غلبني وأخاه النوم ، فأمرنا[58] بالانصراف. وعند[59] الصباح حضر رسوله[60] يستحضرني بحضرته[61] ، وهو على المصلى ، وبين يديه الأجزاء الخمسة ، وقال[62] خذها : وصر بها إلى الشيخ أبي القاسم الكرماني ، وقل له : استعجلتُ في الإجابة[63] عنها لئلا يتعوق الركابي . فلما حملتها تعجب[64] كل العجب ، وصرف الفيج ، وأعلمهم بهذه[65] ، وصار الحديث[66] تاريخاً بين الناس.ووضع في حال الرصد آلات ما سبق إليها[67] ، وصنف فيها رسالة . وبقيت أنا ثمان[68] سنين مشغولاً بالرصد ، وكان غرضي تبين ما يحكيه بطليموس في[69] أرصاده[70].وصنف الشيخ كتاب الإنصاف ، واليوم الذي قدم فيه السلطان مسعود اصفهان[71] ، نهب عسكرُه رَحْلَ الشيخ ، وكان الكتاب في جملته ، وما وُقف له على أثر.وكان الشيخ قوي القوى كلها، و[كانت] قوة المجامعة من قواه الشهوانية أقوى وأغلب ، و[كان كثيراً ، ما] يشتغل به كثيراً ، فأثر في مزاجه . وكان [الشيخ] يعتمد على قوة مزاجه حتى صار أمره في السنة التي حارب فيها علاء الدولة تاش فراش ، على باب الكرخ ، أصاب الشيخ القولنج[72] ، ولحرصه على البرء[73] إشفاقاً على هزيمة[74] يدفع إليها ، ولا يتأتى له المسير فيها مع المرض ، حقن نفسه في يوم واحد ثمان مرات[75] ، فتقرح بعض أمعائه ، وظهر به سَحْج ، وأحوج إلى المسير مع علاء الدولة ، نحو ايذج بسرعة[76] ، فظهر به هناك الصرع الذي يتبع [علة] القولنج ، ومع ذلك كان يدبر نفسه ويتحقن[77] نفسه للسحج[78] ولبقية القولنج ، فأمر يوماً باتخاذ دانقين بذر الكرفس في حملة الحقنة[79] ، طلباً لكسر ريح القولنج ، فطرح[80] بعض الأطباء الذي كان يتقدم [هو] إليه بمعالجته [، وطرح] من بذر[81] الكرفس خمسة دراهم لست أدري أعمداً فعله أم خطأ لأنني لم أك[82] معه، فازداد السحج [به] من حدة [ذلك] البذر[83]، وكان يتناول المثروديطوس[84] لأجل الصرع ، فطرح بعض غلمانه فيه شيئاً من الافيون [85] ، وناوله إياه فأكله[86] وكان سبب ذلك خيانتهم في مال كثير من خزائنه[87]، فتمنوا هلاكه ، ليأمنوا عاقبة أفعاله[88] . ونقل الشيخ كما هو إلى أصفهان ، فاشتغل بتدبير نفسه . وكان من الضعف بحيث لا يستطيع[89] القيام ، فلم يزل يعالج نفسه ، حتى قدر على المشي ، وحضر مجلس علاء الدولة ، وهو مع[90] ذلك لا يتحفظ ، ويكثر [ التخليط في أمر ] المجامعة ، ولم يبرأ من العلة كل البرء ، وكان[91] ينتكس ويبرأ كل وقت.ثم قصد علاء الدولة همدان وسار الشيخ معه[92] ، فعاودته العلة في الطريق[93] ، إلى أن وصل إلى همدان ، وعلم أن قوته [قد] سقطت ، وأنها لا تفي بدفع المرض ، فأهمل مداواة نفسه وكان[94] يقول : المدبر الذي كان يدبر بدني قد عجز عن التدبير ، والآن فلا تنفع المعالجة ، وبقي على هذا أياماً ، ثم انتقل إلى جوار ربه .ودفن بهمذان في سنة ثمان وعشرين وأربعمائة ، وكانت ولادته في سنة سبعين وثلثمائة ، وجميع عمره ثلاثاً وخمسون سنة . لقاه الله صالح أعماله بمنه وكرمه[95] .(انتهت)قال محرر هذه الكلمات هذا ما وقع لي من كتاب » فليسوف عالم: دراسة تحليلية لحياة ابن سينا وفكره الفلسفي « للدكتور جعفر آل ياسين ، دار الأندلس ، بيروت ، الطبعة الأولى ، 1984م - 1404هـ . ص 299-303. مع اضفات هامة ومتممة من كتاب »حياة ابن سينا« لوليم غولمان طبعة مطبعة جامعة ولاية نيورك بمدنية أولبني لعام 1974م ص 44 - 88 ومع اضفات لطيفة وشارحة لبعض الغموضة من كتاب » عيون الأنباء في طبقات الأطباء « لـ المؤلف ابن أبي أصيبعة نقلاً من موقع الوراق في الربع الآخير من عام 2003م ولله الحمد والمنة والصلاة والسلام على رسولانا الكريم وآله الطيـبين الطاهرين وصحبه الغر الميامين إلى يوم الدين آمين آمين يارب العالمين.[1] أول[2] هذا الفهرست من كتلب غولمان.[3] سلطان الري[4] غلبة[5] اتفق[6] عن[7] من المملكة[8] دخدوك[9] وعبي[10] علةّ[11] علي[12] وكان[13] قرب[14] وأتى[15] منها[16] طهران[17] كوى[18] بيبي[19] وصادفه[20] يستحق[21] وأورد[22] في[23] شبهاء[24] الرصد[25] الكتاب[26] الجبائي[27] نرضى[28] استهدى[29] وأنشأ[30] من[31] فعرض[32] أنا[33] وأشك[34] أن ما[35] حتى[36] فبقي على[37] باشره[38] عزم[39] ما بين القوسين غير موجودة عند د. حعفر آل ياسين[40] صدع[41] ينزل[42] وتغطية رأسه بها ففعل[43] قبول[44] الجلنجبين السكري[45] مائة منه وشفيت المرأة[46] ان[47] فنظر[48] فكتبوها[49] بعلم التناظر[50] وأضاف[51] على يدي[52] قاصد[53] واستيجاز أجوبته فيه ، وإذا الشيخ أبي القاسم دخل على الشيخ عند اصفرار الشمس في يوم صائف ،[54] وقطع أجزاء منه ، فشددت خمسة[55] واحد منها[56] فأمر[57] وأنا[58] فأمر[59] فعند[60] الصباح قرع الباب فإذا رسول الشيخ[61] فحضرته[62] فقال[63] الأجوبة[64] حملته إليه تعجب[65] بهذه الحالة[66] هذا الحديث[67] إلها[68] ثماني[69] عن قصته في[70] الأرصاد ، فتبين لي بعضها[71] مسعود إلى اصفهان[72] إلى أن الشيخ قولنج[73] برئه[74] من هزيمة[75] كرات[76] فأسرعوا نحو ايذج[77] ويحق[78] لأجل السحج[79] من بزر الكرفس في جملة ما يحتقن به وخلطه بها[80] الرياح ، فصد بعض[81] بزر[82] أكن[83] البزر[84] المثرود بطوس[85] فقام بعض غلمانه وطرح شيئاً كثيراً من الافيون فيه[86] وناوله فأكله[87] خزانته[88] أعمالهم[89] يقدر على[90] ولكنه مع[91] فكان[92] فسار معه الشيخ[93] فعاودته في الطريق تلك العلة[94] وأخذ[95] وكان عمره ثلاثاً وخمسين سنة، وكان موته في سنة ثمان وعشرين وأربعمائة، وكانت ولادته في سنة خمس وسبعين وثلثمائة

Related questions

What is the metal content of a 1978 drachmai coin?

The metal content of a 1978 drachmai coin would depend on the specific denomination of the coin. The most common drachmai coins from that time period were made of copper-nickel alloy. However, there were also silver and gold coins issued in different denominations.


What is the value of a 1987 Greek 1000 Drachma note?

The Greek 100 Drachmai note (Apaxmai Ekaton) from 1978 or later is worth about $2.50 in mint uncirculated condition and face value in any used condition - although superseded by the Euro in 2001, old notes can still be exchanged in Greek banks - about $0.40.


What is a silver 1978 apaxmai coin worth?

You have a coin from Greece. The word you are looking at is not "apaxmai", but rather "ΔΡΑΧΜΑΙ". It is written in the Greek alphabet and is pronounced "drachmai".Greece produced one coin denominated in drachmai actually made of silver in 1978, as well as three others that were silver in color (but actually made of copper-nickel).The silver coin is a 100 Drachmai (KM#121). It is a large coin, slightly larger than the size of a US half dollar, is 65% silver and contains 0.2717 troy ounces of silver. It is a commemorative coin produced in honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Bank of Greece. Only 25,000 were produced, all in proof, and an example today is worth (according to the Standard Catalog of World Coins, about US$150.The three copper-nickel coins produced in 1978 are the 5, 10 and 20 Drachmai coins. Each is worth about a US dollar in Uncirculated condition, and somewhat less than that with any signs of wear. All were also produced in proof, and in such condition would be worth perhaps US$8 to 10 each.


What is the value of a 1978 Greek drachma coin in American money?

About 10 cents


What is a 1978 d silver dollar worth?

A 1978-D Eisenhower dollar has no silver in it and is only face value.


How much is a 1978 d silver dollar worth?

These coins contain no silver and are worth only face value.


What is a 1978 proof-set worth?

Current retail value is $9.00 Issue price was $9.00


What is the value of a 1978 US silver dollar?

Circulation 1971-1978 Eisenhower dollars were made of copper-nickel and not silver. If it has a copper-colored edge it's only worth face value. A proof coin or part-silver special issue will be worth more.


What is the value of a 1978-1921 morgan silver dollar coin set?

The actual value would be based on the worth of each coin in the set.


How much is a 1978 US one dime worth?

It's face value, the coin is still in circulation.


What is the value of a 1972-1978 Eisenhower?

All circulated Eisenhower dollars are still worth one dollar.


What is the value of a 1978 US of America one dollar coin?

It's still worth one dollar.