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History of advertising in India?
A sophisticated & professional industry called Indian AdvertisingIndian Advertising starts with the hawkers calling out their wares right from the days when cities and markets first beganShop front signagesFrom street side sellers to press adsThe first trademarksHandbills distributed separately from the products18th CenturyConcrete advertising history begins with classified advertisingAds appear for the first time in print in Hickey's Bengal Gazette. India's first newspaper (weekly).Studios mark the beginning of advertising created in India (as opposed to imported from England) Studios set up for bold type, ornate fonts, more fancy, larger adsNewspaper studios train the first generation of visualisers & illustratorsMajor advertisers: Retailers like Spencer's, Army & Navy and Whiteaway & LaidlawMarketing promotions: Retailers' catalogues provided early exampleAds appear in newspapers in the form of lists of the latest merchandise from EnglandPatent medicines: The first brand as we know them today were a category of advertisersHorlicks becomes the first 'malted milk' to be patented on 5th June 1883 (No. 278967).The 1900s1905- B Dattaram & Co claims to be the oldest existing Indian agency inGirgaum in Bombay1912- ITC (then Imperial Tobacco Co. Ltd.) launches Gold Flake1920s- Enter the first foreign owned ad agencies- Gujarat Advertising and Indian Advertising set up- Expatriate agencies emerge: Alliance Advertising, Tata Publicity- LA Stronach's merges into today's Norvicson Advertising- D J Keymer gives rise to Ogilvy & Mather and Clarion1925- LR Swami & Co, Madras1926- LA Stronach & Co (India) Pr. Ltd, Bombay starts- Agency called National set up for American rather than BritishAdvertisers- American importers hire Jagan Nath Jaini, then advertising managerof Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore. National today is still run byJaini's family- Beginning of multinational agencies- J Walter Thompson (JWT) opened to service General Motors business1928- BOMAS Ltd (Formerly DJ Keymer & Co Ltd) set up1929- J Walter Thompson Co Pr. Ltd formedIndian agencies, foreign advertising in the thirties1931- National Advertising Service Pr. Ltd. Bombay set up- Universal Publicity Co, Calcutta formed1934- Venkatrao Sista opens Sista Advertising and Publicity Services as firstfull service Indian agency1935- Indian Publicity Bureau Pr Ltd, Calcutta established1936- Krishna Publicity Co Pr. Ltd, Kanpur begins operations- Studio Ratan Batra Pr. Ltd, Bombay established- Indian Broadcasting Company becomes All India Radio (AIR)1938- Jayendra Publicity, Kolhapur started1939- Lever's advertising department launches Dalda - the first majorexample of a brand and a marketing campaign specifically developedfor India- The Press Syndicate Ltd, Bombay set upIndianising advertisements in the forties1940- Navanitlal & Co., Ahmedabad set up1941- Lux signs Leela Chitnis as the first Indian film actress to endorse theproduct- Hindustan Thompson Associates (HTA), the current incarnation ofJWT, coins the Balanced Nourishment concept to make Horlicksmore relevant to India- Green's Advertising Service Agents, Bombay formed1943- Advertising & Sales Promotion Co (ASP), Calcutta established1944- Dazzal, Bombay comes into existence- Ranjit Sales & Publicity Pr. Ltd, Bombay started1945- Efficient Publicities Pr. Ltd, Madras set up- Tom & Bay (Advertising) Pr. Ltd., Poona begins operations in India1946- Eastern Psychograph Pr. Ltd., Bombay set up- Everest Advertising Pr. Ltd, Bombay established1947- Grant Advertising Inc, Bombay formed- Swami Advertising Bureau, Sholapur started1948- RC Advertising Co, Bombay set up- Phoenix Advertising Pr. Ltd, Calcutta formedCorporate advertising in the fifties1950s- Radio Ceylon and Radio Goa become the media option1951- Vicks VapoRub: a rub for colds, causes ripples with its entryin the balm market1952- Shantilal G Shah & Co, Bombay1954- Advertising Club, Mumbai set up- Express Advertising Agency, Bombay- India Publicity Co. Pr. Ltd., Calcutta1956- Aiyars Advertising & Marketing, Bombay- Clarion Advertising Services Pr. Ltd, Calcutta1957- Vividh Bharati kicks off1958- Shree Advertising Agency, Bombay1959- Associated Publicity, CuttackCreative revolution in the sixties1960- Advertising Accessories, Trichur started- Marketing Advertising Associates, Bombay set up1961- Industrial Advertising Agency, Bombay comes into existence- Bal Mundkur quits BOMAS to set up Ulka the same year1962- India's television's first soap opera - Teesra Rasta enthrallsviewers1963- BOMAS changes names to SH Benson's- Stronach's absorbed into Norvicson- Lintas heading for uncertainty- Levers toying with giving its brands to other agencies- Nargis Wadia sets up Interpub- Wills Filter Tipped cigarettes launched and positioned as made foreach other, filter and tobacco match1965- Kersey Katrak sets up Mass Communication and Marketing (MCM)1966- Government persuaded to open up the broadcast media- Ayaz Peerbhoy sets up Marketing and Advertising Associates (MAA)1967- First commercial appears on Vividh Bharati1968- Nari Hira sets up Creative Unit- India wins the bid for the Asian Advertising Congress1969- Sylvester daCunha left Stronach's to run ASP; later sets updaCunha Associates1970- Frank Simoes sets up Frank Simoes AssociatesThe problematic seventies1970-1978- National Readership Studies provided relevant data onconsumers' reading habits1970- Concept of commercial programming accepted by All India Radio- Hasan Rezavi gives the very first spot on Radio Ceylon1971- Benson's undergo change in name to Ogilvy, Benson & Mather1972- Western Outdoor Advertising Pvt Ltd (WOAPL) introduces firstclosed circuit TV (CCT) in the country at the race course inMumbai1973- RK Swamy/BBDO established1974- MCM goes out of business- Arun Nanda & Ajit Balakrishnan set up Rediffusion1975- Ravi Gupta sets up Trikaya Grey1976- Commercial Television initiated1978- First television commercial seen1979- Ogilvy, Benson & Mather's name changes to Ogilvy & MatherGlued to the television in the eighties1980- Mudra Communications Ltd set up- King-sized Virginia filter cigarette enters market with brand nameof 'Charms'1981- Network, associate of UTV, pioneers cable television in India1982- The biggest milestone in television was the Asiad '82 whentelevision turned to colour transmission- Bombay Dyeing becomes the first colour TV ad- 13th Asian Advertising Congress in New Delhi- Media planning gets a boost1983- Maggi Noodles launched to become an overnight success- Canco Advertising Pvt. Ltd. founded- Manohar Shyam Joshi's Hum Log makes commercial televisioncome alive- Mudra sponsors first commercial telecast of a major sporting eventwith the India-West Indies series1984- Hum Log, Doordarshan's first soap opera in the colour era isborn- Viewers still remember the sponsor (Vicco) of Yeh Jo HaiZindagi!1985- Mudra makes India's first telefilm, Janam1985-86- 915 new brands of products and services appearing on the IndianMarket1986- Sananda is born on July 31. The Bengali magazine stupefies Indiaby selling 75,000 copies within three hours of appearing on thenewsstands.- Mudra Communications creates India's first folk-history TVserial Buniyaad. Shown on DD, it becomes the first of themega soaps- Price quality positioning of Nirma detergent cakes boost sales1988- AAAI's Premnarayan Award instituted1989- Advertising Club Bombay begins a biennial seminar called'Advertising that Works'- Advertising & Marketing (A&M) magazine launchedTech savvy in the nineties1990- Marks the beginning of new medium Internet- Agencies open new media shops; go virtual with websites andInternet advertising- Brand Equity (magazine) of The Economic Times is born1991- First India-targetted satellite channel, Zee TV starts broadcast- Close on the throes of the Gulf War enters STAR (SatelliteTransmission for Asia Region)1992- Spectrum, publisher of A&M, constitutes its own award known as'A&M Awards'- Scribes and media planners credit The Bold And The Beautifulserial on STAR Plus channel as a soap that started the culturalinvasion1993- India's only advertising school, MICA (Mudra Institute ofCommunications Ahmedabad), is born- Tara on Zee TV becomes India's first female-centric soap1995- Advertising Club of Bombay calls its awards as Abby- Country's first brand consulting firm, SABRE (Strategic Advantage forBrand Equity) begins operations1996- The ad fraternity hits big time for the first time by bagging threeawards at the 43rd International Advertising Festival, Cannes- Sun TV becomes the first regional TV channel to go live 24 hoursa day on all days of the week1997- Media boom with the growth of cable and satellite; print mediumsees an increase in titles, especially in specialised areas- Government turns towards professional advertising in the privatesector for its VDIS campaigns- Army resorts to the services of private sector agencies- Advertising on the Internet gains popularity- Equitor Consulting becomes the only independent brand consultancycompany in the country- Several exercises in changing corporate identity- For the first time ever, Indians stand the chance of winning the $ 1-million booty being offered by Gillette as part of its Football WorldCup promo 1998- Events assume important role in marketing mix- Rise of software TV producers banking on ad industry talent- Reinventing of cinema -advertising through cinema begins1998- Lintas becomes Ammirati Puri Lintas (APL)1999- B2B site agencyfaqs.com launched on September 28, 1999- The Advertising Club Bombay announces the AdWorks TrophyIn the new millennium2000- Mudra launches magindia.com - India's first advertising and marketingGallery- Lintas merges with Lowe Group to become Lowe Lintas and Partners(LLP)- bigideasunlimited.com - a portal offering free and fee ideas for moneylaunched by Alyque Padamsee and Sam Mathews- Game shows like Kaun Banega Crorepati become a rage; media buyingindustry is bullish on KBC- Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi marks the return of family-oriented soap on TV- French advertising major Publicis acquires Maadhyam2001- Trikaya Grey becomes Grey Worldwide- Bharti's Rs 2.75-crore corporate TV commercial, where a babygirl is born in a football stadium, becomes the most expensivecampaign of the year2002- Lowe Lintas & Partners rechristened Lowe Worldwide- For the first time in the history of HTA, a new post of president iscreated. Kamal Oberoi is appointed as the first president of HTA
Who was Buddhism developed by?
Mahayana BuddhismTheravada Buddhism focused primarily on meditation and concentration, the eighth of the Eightfold Noble Path; as a result, it centered on a monastic life and an extreme expenditure of time in meditating. This left little room for the bulk of humanity to join in, so a new schism erupted within the ranks of Buddhism in the first century AD, one that would attempt to reformulate the teachings of Buddha to accomodate a greater number of people. They called their new Buddhism, the "Greater Vehicle" (literally, "The Greater Ox-Cart") or Mahayana, since it could accomodate more people and more believers from all walks of life. They distinguished themselves from mainstream Theravada Buddhism by contemptuously referring to Theravada as Hinayana, or "The Lesser Vehicle."The Mahayanists, however, did not see themselves as creating a new start for Buddhism, rather they claimed to be recovering the original teachings of Buddha, in much the same way that the Protestant reformers of sixteenth century Europe claimed that they were not creating a new Christianity but recovering the original form. The Mahayanists claimed that their canon of scriptures represented the final teachings of Buddha; they accounted for the non-presence of these teachings in over five hundred years by claiming that these were secret teachings entrusted only to the most faithful followers.Whatever the origins of Mahayan doctrines, they represent a significant departure in the philosophy. Like the Protestant Reformation, the overall goal of Mahayana was to extend religious authority to a greater number of people rather than concentrating it in the hands of a few. The Mahayanists managed to turn Buddhism into a more esoteric religion by developing a theory of gradations of Buddhahood. At the top was Buddhahood itself which was preceded by a series of lives, the bodhisattvas.This idea of the bodhisattva was one of the most important innovations of Mahayana Buddhism. The boddhisattva, or "being of wisdom," was originally invented to explain the nature of Buddha's earlier lives. Before Buddha entered his final life as Siddhartha Gautama, he had spent many lives working towards Buddhahood. In these previous lives he was a bodhisattva , a kind of "Buddha-in-waiting," that performed acts of incredible generosity, joy, and compassion towards his fellow human beings. An entire group of literature grew up around these previous lives of Buddha, called the Jataka or "Birth Stories."While we do not know much about the earliest forms of Buddhism, there is some evidence that the earliest followers believed that there was only the one Buddha and that no more would follow. Soon, however, a doctrine of the Maitreya , or "Future Buddha," began to assert itself. In this, Buddhists believed that a second Buddha would come and purify the world; they also believed that the first Buddha prophesied this future Buddha. If a future Buddha was coming, that meant that the second Buddha is already on earth passing through life after life. So someone on earth was the Maitreya . It could be the person serving you food. It could be a child playing in the street. It could be you. What if there was more than one Maitreya? Five? Ten? A billion? That certainly raises the odds that you or someone you know is a future Buddha.The goal of Theravada Buddhism is practically unattainable. In order to make Buddhism a more esoteric religion, the Mahayanists invented two grades of Buddhist attainment below becoming a Buddha. While the Buddha was the highest goal, one could become a pratyeka-buddha , that is, one who has awakened to the truth but keeps it secret. Below the pratyeka-buddha is the arhant , or "worthy," who has learned the truth from others and has realized it as truth. Mahayana Buddhism establishes the arhant as the goal for all believers. The believer hears the truth, comes to realize it as truth, and then passes into Nirvana . This doctrine of arhanthood is the basis for calling Mahayan the "Greater Vehicle," for it is meant to include everyone.Finally, the Mahayanists completed the conversion of Buddhism from a philosophy to religion. Therevada Buddhism holds that Buddha was a historical person who, on his death, ceased to exist. There were, however, strong tendencies for Buddhists to worship Buddha as a god of some sort; these tendencies probably began as early as Buddha's lifetime. The Mahayanists developed a theology of Buddha called the doctrine of "The Three Bodies," or Trikaya. The Buddha was not a human being, as he was in Theravada Buddhism, but the manifestation of a universal, spiritual being. This being had three bodies. When it occupied the earth in the form of Siddhartha Gautama, it took on the Body of Magical Transformation (nirmanakaya ). This Body of Magical Transformation was an emanation of the Body of Bliss (sambhogakaya ), which occupies the heavens in the form of a ruling and governing god of the universe. There are many forms of the Body of Bliss, but the one that rules over our world is Amithaba who lives in a paradise in the western heavens called Sukhavati, or "Land of Pure Bliss." Finally, the Body of Bliss is an emanation of the Body of Essence (dharmakaya ), which is the principle underlying the whole of the universe. This Body of Essence, the principle and rule of the universe, became synonymous with Nirvana . It was a kind of universal soul, and Nirvana became the transcendent joining with this universal soul.http://wsu.edu/~dee/BUDDHISM/MAHAYANA.HTM
What are some differences in Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism?
Here are some informative websites that have a breif outline of the differences: The schools of Tibetan Buddhism http://dl.lib.brown.edu/BuddhistTempleArt/buddhism2.html The Buddhist schools of Mahayana and Theravada http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/schools1.htm http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/snapshot02.htmth For a table outlining the differences that is extremely straight forward check out http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/fastfacts/differences_theravada_mahayana.htmIf you want more of a better explanation and detail, including info on the different schools, get The Buddhist Bible.Though we have no actual bible, this is just a great book with information from many different sources. For more go to Buddhistebooks.com and there are many other sources where you can even have actual free books shipped to you, or locate a retreat or local Budddhist Temple or Meditation Hall. namaste!
Why water is one of basic necessity?
For other uses of 4 elements, see Four elements (disambiguation). For other uses of 5 elements, see Five elements (disambiguation).Many philosophies and worldviews have a set of classical elements believed to reflect the simplest essential parts and principles of which anything consists or upon which the constitution and fundamental powers of anything are based. Most frequently, classical elements refer to ancient beliefs inspired by natural observation of the phases of matter. Historians trace the evolution of modern theory pertaining to the chemical elements, as well as chemical compounds and mixtures of natural substances to medieval, Islamic and Greek models. Many concepts once thought to be analogous, such as the Chinese Wu Xing, are now understood more figuratively.Contents[hide] 1 Ancient classic element systems 1.1 Classical elements in Babylonia1.2 Classical elements in Greece1.3 Classical elements in Egypt1.4 Classical elements in India 1.4.1 Classical elements in Hinduism1.4.2 Buddhist elements1.4.3 Seven chakras1.5 Bön elements1.6 Chinese elements1.7 Japanese elements2 Elements in Medieval alchemy3 Modern elements4 Elements in western astrology and tarot5 See also6 References7 External linksAncient classic element systems[hide] Classical Elements v · d · eBabylonianWindSkySeaEarthGreekAirWaterAetherFireEarthHinduism (Tattva) andBuddhism (Mahābhūta)VayuApAkashaAgniPrithviChinese (Wuxing)Wood (木)Water (水)Fire (火)Metal (金)Earth (土)Japanese (Godai)Air (風)Water (水)Void (空)Fire (火)Earth (地)Tibetan (Bön)AirWaterAetherFireEarthMedieval AlchemyAirWaterAetherFireEarthSulphurMercurySaltIn classical thought, the four elements Earth, Water, Air, and Fire frequently occur; sometimes including a fifth element or quintessence (after "quint" meaning "fifth") called Aether in ancient Greece and India. The concept of the five elements formed a basis of analysis in both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, particularly in an esoteric context, the four states-of-matter describe matter, and a fifth element describes that which was beyond the material world. Similar lists existed in ancient China and Japan. In Buddhism the four great elements, to which two others are sometimes added, are not viewed as substances, but as categories of sensory experience.Classical elements in BabyloniaThe concept of the four classical elements in the Western tradition originates from Babylonian mythology. The Enûma Eliš, a text written between the 18th and 16th centuries BC, describes four cosmic elements: the sea, earth, sky, and wind.[1] Classical elements in GreeceThe Greek classical elements (Earth, Water, Air, Fire, and Aether) date from pre-Socratic times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, deeply influencing European thought and culture. The Greek five elements are sometimes associated with the five platonic solids. Hellenic Physics Hellenic elementsfire · earth · air · waterPlato characterizes the elements as being pre-Socratic in origin from a list created by the Sicilian philosopher Empedocles (ca. 450 BC). Empedocles called these the four "roots" (ῥιζὤματα, rhizōmata). Plato seems to have been the first to use the term "element (στοιχεῖον, stoicheion)" in reference to air, fire, earth, and water.[2] The ancient Greek word for element, stoicheion (from stoicheo, "to line up") meant "smallest division (of a sun-dial), a syllable", as the composing unit of an alphabet it could denote a letter and the smallest unit from which a word is formed.According to Aristotle in his On Generation and Corruption:Air is primarily wet and secondarily hot.Fire is primarily hot and secondarily dry.Earth is primarily dry and secondarily cold.Water is primarily cold and secondarily wet.One classic diagram (above) has one square inscribed in the other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties. The opposite corner is the opposite of these properties, "hot - cold" and "dry - wet".Aristotle added aether as the quintessence, reasoning that whereas fire, earth, air, and water were earthly and corruptible, since no changes had been perceived in the heavenly regions, the stars cannot be made out of any of the four elements but must be made of a different, unchangeable, heavenly substance.[3]Classical elements in EgyptA Greek text called the "Kore Kosmou" or "Virgin of the World," ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (the name given by the Greeks to the Egyptian god Thoth), names the four elements fire, water, air, and earth. As described in this book: "And Isis answer made: Of living things, my son, some are made friends with fire, and some with water, some with air, and some with earth, and some with two or three of these, and some with all. And, on the contrary, again some are made enemies of fire, and some of water, some of earth, and some of air, and some of two of them, and some of three, and some of all. For instance, son, the locust and all flies flee fire; the eagle and the hawk and all high-flying birds flee water; fish, air and earth; the snake avoids the open air. Whereas snakes and all creeping things love earth; all swimming things--love--water; winged things, air, of which they are the citizens; while those that fly still higher--love--the fire and have the habitat near it. Not that some of the animals as well do not love fire; for instance salamanders, for they even have their homes in it. It is because one or another of the elements doth form their bodies' outer envelope. Each soul, accordingly, while it is in its body is weighted and constricted by these four." According to Galen, these elements were used by Hippocrates in describing the human body with an association with the four humours: yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), blood (air), and phlegm (water).Classical elements in IndiaClassical elements in HinduismThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2007)Main article: MahabhutaThe pancha mahabhuta, or "five great elements", of Hinduism are kshiti or bhūmi (earth), ap or jala (water), tejas or agni (fire), marut or pavan (air or wind), vyom or shunya (or akash?) (aether or void). Hindus believe that all of creation, including the human body, is made up of these five essential elements and that upon death, the human body dissolves into these five elements of nature, thereby balancing the cycle of nature.Hindus believe that the Creator used akasha (ether), the most "subtle" element, to create the other four traditional elements; each element created is in turn used to create the next element, each less subtle than the last. The five elements are associated with the five senses, and act as the gross medium for the experience of sensations. The basest element, earth, created using all the other elements, can be perceived by all five senses - hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell. The next higher element, water, has no odor but can be heard, felt, seen and tasted. Next comes fire, which can be heard, felt and seen. Air can be heard and felt. "Akasha" (ether) is the medium of sound but is inaccessible to all other senses.Buddhist elementsThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007)Main article: MahābhūtaIn the Pali literature, the mahabhuta ("great elements") or catudhatu ("four elements") are earth, water, fire and air. In early Buddhism, the four elements are a basis for understanding suffering and for liberating oneself from suffering. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are the sensory qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterization as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively, is declared an abstraction---instead of concentrating on the fact of material existence, one observes how a physical thing is sensed, felt, perceived.[4]The Buddha's teaching regarding the four elements is to be understood as the base of all observation of real sensations rather than as a philosophy. The four properties are cohesion (water), solidity or inertia (earth), expansion or vibration (air) and heat or energy content (fire). He promulgated a categorization of mind and matter as composed of eight types of "kalapas" of which the four elements are primary and a secondary group of four are color, smell, taste, and nutriment which are derivative from the four primaries.The Buddha's teaching of the four elements does predate Greek teaching of the same four elements.[citation needed] This is possibly explained by the fact that he sent out 60 arahants to the known world to spread his teaching; however it differs in the fact that the Buddha taught that the four elements are false and that form is in fact made up of much smaller particles which are constantly changing.[citation needed]Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997) renders an extract of Shakyamuni Buddha's from Pali into English thus:Just as a skilled butcher or his apprentice, having killed a cow, would sit at a crossroads cutting it up into pieces, the monk contemplates this very body --- however it stands, however it is disposed --- in terms of properties: 'In this body there is the earth property, the liquid property, the fire property, & the wind property.'[5]Seven chakrasIn the philosophy of the seven chakras there are correspondences to the five elements as shared by both Hinduism and Buddhism as well as two other elements:Sahasrara (Crown): Thought/SpaceAjña (Third Eye): Light/DarkVishuddhi (Throat): Ether/SoundAnahata (Heart): AirManipura (Navel): FireSvadhisthana (Sacral): WaterMuladhara (Root): EarthBön elementsIn Bön or ancient Tibetan philosophy, the five elemental processes of earth, water, fire, air and space are the essential materials of all existent phenomena or aggregates. The elemental processes form the basis of the calendar, astrology, medicine, psychology and are the foundation of the spiritual traditions of shamanism, tantra and Dzogchen. Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche states thatphysical properties are assigned to the elements: earth is solidity; water is cohesion; fire is temperature; air is motion; and space is the spatial dimension that accommodates the other four active elements. In addition, the elements are correlated to different emotions, temperaments, directions, colors, tastes, body types, illnesses, thinking styles, and character. From the five elements arise the five senses and the five fields of sensual experience; the five negative emotions and the five wisdoms; and the five extensions of the body. They are the five primary pranas or vital energies. They are the constituents of every physical, sensual, mental, and spiritual phenomenon.[6]The names of the elements are analogous to categorised experiential sensations of the natural world. The names are symbolic and key to their inherent qualities and/or modes of action by analogy. In Bön the elemental processes are fundamental metaphors for working with external, internal and secret energetic forces. All five elemental processes in their essential purity are inherent in the mindstream and link the trikaya and are aspects of primordial energy. As Herbert V. Günther states:Thus, bearing in mind that thought struggles incessantly against the treachery of language and that what we observe and describe is the observer himself, we may nonetheless proceed to investigate the successive phases in our becoming human beings. Throughout these phases, the experience (das Erlebnis) of ourselves as an intensity (imaged and felt as a "god", lha) setting up its own spatiality (imaged and felt as a "house" khang) is present in various intensities of illumination that occur within ourselves as a "temple." A corollary of this Erlebnis is its light character manifesting itself in various "frequencies" or colors. This is to say, since we are beings of light we display this light in a multiplicity of nuances.[7]In the above block quote the trikaya is encoded as: dharmakaya "god"; sambhogakaya "temple" and nirmanakaya "house".Chinese elementsMain article: Wu Xing This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009)The Chinese had a somewhat different series of elements, namely Fire, Earth, Water, Metal and Wood, which were understood as different types of energy in a state of constant interaction and flux with one another, rather than the Western notion of different kinds of material.Although it is usually translated as "element", the Chinese word xing literally means something like "changing states of being", "permutations" or "metamorphoses of being".[8] In fact Sinologists cannot agree on one single translation. The Chinese conception of "element" is therefore quite different from the Western one. The Western elements were seen as the basic building blocks of matter. The Chinese, by contrast, were seen as ever changing and moving forces or energies---one translation of wu xing is simply "the five changes".The Wu Xing are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device for systems with five stages; hence the preferred translation of "movements", "phases" or "steps" over "elements."In Taoism there is a similar system of elements, which includes metal and wood, but excludes air, which is replaced with qi, which is a force or energy rather than an element. In Chinese philosophy the universe consists of heaven and earth, heaven being made of qi and earth being made of the five elements (in the Chinese view, the attributes and properties of the Western and Indian Air element are equivalent to that of Wood[citation needed], where the element of Ether is often seen as a correspondent to Metal[citation needed]). The five major planets are associated with and named after the elements: Venus 金星 is Metal (金), Jupiter 木星 is Wood (木), Mercury 水星 is Water (水), Mars 火星 is Fire (火), and Saturn 土星 is Earth (土). Additionally, the Moon represents Yin (陰), and the Sun 太陽 represents Yang (陽). Yin, Yang, and the five elements are recurring themes in the I Ching, the oldest of Chinese classical texts which describes an ancient system of cosmology and philosophy. The five elements also play an important part in Chinese astrology and the Chinese form of geomancy known as Feng shuiThe doctrine of five phases describes two cycles of balance, a generating or creation (生, shēng) cycle and an overcoming or destruction (克/剋, kè) cycle of interactions between the phases.GeneratingWood feeds fire;Fire creates earth (ash);Earth bears metal;Metal collects water;Water nourishes wood.OvercomingWood parts earth;Earth absorbs water;Water quenches fire;Fire melts metal;Metal chops wood.There are also two cycles of imbalance, an overacting cycle (cheng) and an insulting cycle (wu).Japanese elementsMain article: Five elements (Japanese philosophy)Japanese traditions use a set of elements called the 五大 (go dai, literally "five great"). These five are earth, water, fire, wind/air, and void. These came from Buddhist beliefs; the classical Chinese elements (五行, go gyô) are also prominent in Japanese culture, especially to the influential Neo-Confucianists during the Edo period.Earth represented things that were solid.Water represented things that were liquid.Fire represented things that destroy.Air represented things that moved.Spirit represented things not of our everyday life.Elements in Medieval alchemyThe elemental system used in Medieval alchemy was developed by the Arabic alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān and others.[9] His original system consisted of the four classical elements found in the ancient Greek traditions (air, earth, fire and water), in addition to two philosophical elements: sulphur, 'the stone which burns', which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. The three metallic principles: sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt to solidity.[citation needed] became the tri prima of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus, who reasoned that Aristotle's four element theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental, and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercury principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt).[10] Modern elementsSee also: History of scienceThe Aristotelian tradition and medieval Alchemy eventually gave rise to modern scientific theories and new taxonomies. By the time of Antoine Lavoisier, for example, a list of elements would no longer refer to classical elements.[11] The classical elements correspond more closely to four states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.1s, 2s, 2px,2py, and 2pz.The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals using color to depict the phase of the wavefunction.Modern science recognizes classes of elementary particles which have no substructure (or rather, particles that aren't made of other particles) and composite particles having substructure (particles made of other particles). The Standard Model of quantum mechanics defines three classes of elementary subatomic particles: quarks and leptons (matter-like particles) and gauge bosons (energy-like force carriers). Quarks are divided into six types: up, down, top, bottom, strange and charm; and leptons are similarly divided into six types: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau and tau neutrino. The types of force carriers include: photon, W and Z boson, gluon and some quantification of a Higgs boson.Elements in western astrology and tarotMain articles: astrology and the classical elements and divinatory tarotWestern astrology uses the four classical elements in connection with astrological charts and horoscopes. The twelve signs of the zodiac are divided into the four elements: Fire signs are Aries, Leo and Sagittarius, Earth signs are Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn, Air signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius, and Water signs are Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces.In divinatory tarot, the suits of cups, swords, batons/wands, and discs/coins are said to correspond to water, air, fire, and earth respectively.See alsoAlchemyErosionFirst principle (Pre-Socratic arche and Aristotelian substratum)First principle (Chinese qì and Japanese ki)Five elements (Chinese wǔ xíng)Five elements (Hindu mahābhūta) and Four elements (Buddhist mahābhūtāni)Five elements (Japanese godai)Elemental (Renaissance alchemy)Philosopher's stone (Middle Ages and Renaissance alchemy)Phlogiston theory (History of science)Periodic table of the elements (Modern science)Quantum mechanics (Modern science)Table of correspondences (Magic and the occult)ReferencesGeneral information Paul Strathern (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream -- the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books.Footnotes ^ Francesca Rochberg (December 2002). "A consideration of Babylonian astronomy within the historiography of science". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 33 (4): 661--684. doi:10.1016/S0039-3681(02)00022-5.^ G. E. R. Lloyd (1968). Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge Univ. Pr.. pp. 133--139. ISBN 0-521-09456-9.^ Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche (2002). Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. p. 1. ISBN 1559391766.^ Herber V. Günther (1996). The Teachings of Padmasambhava (Hardcover ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill. pp. 115--116.^ Wolfram Eberhard (1986). A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul. pp. 93, 105, 309. ISBN 0710201915.^ Norris, John A. (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science". Ambix53: 43. doi:10.1179/174582306X93183.^ Strathern, 2000. Page 79.^ Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), in Classic Chemistry, compiled by Carmen Giunta
