What would not be included in a biographical sketch of Woodrow Wilson?

What did colonial time potters make?

Understanding the types of pottery that have been made in or imported to America can be difficult to sort through. Below is a thumbnail sketch of the most common types of pottery found in America during the 17th and 18th centuries along with a very brief technical description of each which, hopefully, will prove useful to the reader.The average New England household in the 17th century could contain an assortment of ceramics from Europe, the Mediterranean and the Orient. Trade up and down the Atlantic coast was taking place among the Dutch, English and Spanish. The inventories of early 17th century New England households in the Boston area have shown to contain Dutch and English delft, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese maiolica (or majolica), porcelain, imported redware and locally manufactured redware.EARTHENWARE: All clays which have a porosity above 5% when fired are considered earthenwares. What this means is that the ability of a fired clay to hold liquids without seepage occurring must be within 5% of being completely water tight (vitrified). Earthenwares can range from pure white to dark brown in color. The texture of the clays can be fine grained to coarse. Generally, earthenwares fire to lower temperatures than either stoneware or porcelain. Earthenwares cannot be made absolutely water tight because of their porosity although the application of glaze to the pot does help. Some glazes work better than others in preventing seepage.Redware is a type of earthenware. What causes the red color is the amount of iron in the clay body. Other minerals can affect the color as well but iron is the major mineral to affect color. Redwares can range from light orange to dark brown in color and the clay body can be fine grained to coarse. Redware clay deposits occur close to the surface and can be used as they are after processing. The color of the clay as it comes out of the ground can very greatly from the finished pot. Often, redware clays in New England are grey in color until after firing at which time many of them range from bright orange to deep red-brown.During the 17th and 18th centuries, locally produced redware was usually utilitarian and sometimes of poor quality. From the 1680s through the Revolutionary War potters were restricted by the British from making fancier wares and could only make the more basic forms such as chamber pots, pans, butter pots and other common pieces found in the kitchen and pantry. These types of wares were not economical to ship from Europe and so local production was tolerated. Refined redwares, most stoneware and all porcelain and tin-glazed wares were imported into the American colonies until the end of the Revolutionary War.Another reason for the lack of local production of more refined ceramics is due to the fact that outside of urban areas, potters were frequently farmers or involved in another livelihood besides pottery. The farmer/potter would make pottery during the times of year when the demands of farming were low. They provided a necessary service to their communities by supplying much needed wares. Skilled potters who emigrated to America usually worked in the urban areas where more jobs were available. The rural American potter was often self taught or taught by other potters who never had the benefit of learning the trade in one of the large well organized European centers.Delft is also a type of earthenware. The clay is covered with an opaque tin bearing glaze and then often but not always painted and finally fired. The term delft is confusing and many references in the past have been inconsistent. A more accurate term is Tin glazed wares. Tin glazed wares include: delft from Holland and England, maiolica (or majolica) from Italy, Spain and Portugal and faience from France and Germany. They are all the same process, that is, an earthenware clay with the opaque tin glaze applied over.Tin glazed wares were never produced in America but the plainer types were imported in large quantities from the mid 17th through mid 18th century. Because these wares are soft, porous and easily chipped, they lost popularity as soon as pottery which was more durable and aesthetically satisfying could be made. This happened around 1750 when Staffordshire white salt glaze, an especially refined and porcelain-like type of pottery started being produced in England. At the same time, refined earthenwares were developed and these wares satisfied the changing tastes of both Europeans and Americans. Creamware and pearlware are types of refined earthenwares.STONEWARE: Clay which can be fired within 2% of total vitrification or less are considered to be stoneware. Stoneware clays are usually made up of blended clay bodies to produce a malleable, strong clay which can be worked on the potters wheel and fired to a vitreous state. Color and texture of stoneware clays can vary quite a lot. Color can range from white to dark brown and texture can be smooth to coarse. Salt glazing is a process whereby sodium, most often in the form of coarse salt, is introduced into the kiln during the firing. A chemical reaction between the clay body and the salt forms the pebbly, clear glaze. Although technically salt-glazing can be performed on certain earthenwares and porcelains, this process is most commonly used on stoneware. From an historic viewpoint, it can be assumed that a salt-glazed pot is made of stoneware.Stonewares were imported from Europe to the American Colonies until the end of the Revolutionary War. Germany and England were the largest producers and exporters of stoneware. Both countries were producing grey salt glaze with blue decoration. The English added manganese purple as a decoration by the 18th century. Both countries also produced brown salt glaze. The German bellarmine jug and the English stein are the most common forms of brown salt glazed stoneware produced for foreign markets. American production began in the mid 18th century and both imitated and competed with the European imports despite trade restrictions. Large scale manufacture did not occur until immediately after the Revolutionary War. The large centers in the North spread from New Jersey and New York into New England. The southern centers were concentrated in Philadelphia and eastern Pennsylvania. Over time, more potteries started and began spreading further south. The tradition of salt glaze and alkaline glaze stoneware continued there well into the mid 19th century.PORCELAIN: A hard, white, non-porous clay which originated in China. The primary ingredient in porcelain is a fine grained clay called kao ling or kaolin. There are two types of porcelain ; hard paste and soft paste. Hard paste porcelain is fired to high temperatures where the clay becomes glasslike in its composition. Hard paste porcelains were imported from the Orient, mostly from China where sophisticated manufacturing techniques began as early as the 14th century. The popularity of porcelain created what is referred to as the China Trade.Like stoneware, porcelain is most often composed of a mixture of different clays. Suitable European clays for the production of porcelain were difficult to fine and the Europeans could not figure out the formula for porcelain until the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. They first began making soft paste porcelain which fires to lower temperatures than hard paste and does not achieve the much sought after translucence of hard paste. Bone china is a type of soft paste porcelain developed in Europe. Production in the United States began in Philadelphia during the 3rd quarter of the 18th century but still proved difficult to produce and the attempt was short lived. It was in the 19th century that the ceramic industry reached its greatest level of growth and diversification in America before declining in the 20th century due to a variety of factors. Mass produced non-ceramic containers were less fragile, lighter in weight and cheaper to produce. This made handmade pottery too labor intensive and time consuming to continue being a viable trade.

Who is Peter Cooper?

He was an American industrialist, inventor, philanthropist and candidate for president of the United States. Peter Cooper (February 12, 1791-April 4, 1883), Unitarian inventor, entrepreneur, and college founder, was a real-life "rags to riches" hero whose love for humanity and deep religious convictions led him to establish the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, the first postsecondary institution in the United States to provide free education to the poor and to adults, including women. Peter was born in New York City to Methodists Margaret Campbell and John Cooper. Their home was opened to traveling clergy. Peter later recalled that his "father's religion was of that kind that he feared everybody would go tumbling into hell." Although he abandoned his father's doctrine, he never strayed from the work ethic his father instilled in him from an early age. John Cooper attempted several craft and merchandising occupations, with little success. Among other tasks, Peter had to "boil the hair out of the rabbit skins to be used in the manufacture of hats." This experience may well have inspired his later invention of gelatin, made by boiling animal skin and connective tissue. He began inventing early in adolescence. He devised a machine for washing clothes, which aided his mother greatly. He helped his family by finding new ways to net wild pigeons, construct shoes, make bricks, and brew beer. So occupied, he had little opportunity for schooling. "My only recollection of being at school," Cooper explained in his autobiography, "was at Peekskill [New York] about some three or four quarters and a part of the time it was half-day school." As he began to hone his entrepreneurial skills, his lively curiosity nevertheless helped him to acquire an informal education. In 1808 Cooper was apprenticed to a New York coachmaker. Although he showed promise in this trade, he declined to take the loan necessary to set himself up in the business. Instead he took a job in Hempstead, Long Island with a manufacturer of cloth-shearing machines. There he obtained a license to make and sell the machines in New York. He then designed, patented, and manufactured an improved version of the machine. He recalled that "the first money I received for the sale of my machines was from Mr. [Matthew] Vassar, of Poughkeepsie, who afterwards founded that noble institution for female education, called Vassar College." In 1813 Cooper married Sarah Raynor Bedell. Only two of their six children, Edward and Sarah Amelia, survived childhood. For a time he operated a grocery store in partnership with his brother-in-law. A jack-of-all-trades, he also ran factories to make furniture, glue, and isinglass. In 1828 he founded the Canton Iron Works in Baltimore, Maryland. This made his fortune. He set up other foundries in New Jersey and Pennsylvania and a rolling mill in New York (which he later moved to Trenton, New Jersey). In addition to the washing machine, Cooper invented a cutting device for lawn mowers, a torpedo boat, and the first American steam locomotive (named "Tom Thumb"). With his brother Thomas, in 1854 he manufactured the first iron structural beams. He also invented the first blast furnace, a compressed air engine for ferry boats, a water-powered device to move barges down the newly-constructed Erie Canal, a machine to grind and polish plate glass, and a musical cradle. Cooper was the founding president of the New York, Newfoundland & London Telegraph Company, 1854, and of the North American Telegraph Company, 1857. He oversaw the project, directed by Cyrus Field, which in 1866 laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable. A compulsive builder of social institutions, in 1851 Cooper helped found the Demilt Dispensary. He was one of the incorporators of the New York Juvenile Asylum, 1851. He was as a founding board member of the New York Gallery of Fine Arts, 1844, and the New York Citizens' Association, 1863. Cooper's pursuits were deeply influenced by his Unitarian beliefs, which emerged when he heard Orville Dewey preach at Second Church (now The Community Church of New York) in 1838. He immediately joined Second Church and stayed there until 1855, when he joined the First Congregational Church in the City of New York (now the Unitarian Church of All Souls). He worked closely with the minister, Henry Whitney Bellows, on the United States Sanitary Commission and to promote New York educational reform. While serving as the Assistant Alderman for the New York Common Council, he led the Croton project to improve the city's water supply by damming the Croton River in Westchester County, New York. When the Common Council merged with the education board, he served as a trustee for over twenty years and led the campaign of the Free Schools Society, organized to give free instruction to New York's children. He opposed public subsidization of Roman Catholic schooling, saying that no public funds should be used for schools promulgating a religious doctrine. "Longing to find something that would satisfy the cravings of a rational and moral mind," Cooper absorbed the teachings of William Ellery Channing, who opposed revelation and original sin, and Elias Hicks, a Foxite Quaker. In his own writing he expressed his Universalist, as well as Unitarian, beliefs. He professed a "God of love-love in action" where all flesh shall see the salvation provided by God. Like many Unitarians he believed that a great union of all Christian sects would share in Jesus as a "great and noble teacher of humanity." Unitarianism provided Cooper with a language through which to explore a "rational conception of a Supreme Being." This led Cooper to couple science and theology. He considered knowledge as "the rule or law of God." He asked himself what he would do if he, as an inventor, had the power to move matter. He thought that he would "move matter to accomplish the greatest and best thing possible to the imagination . . . [and therefore] would organize, individualize, and immortalize all intelligent minds that have lived or can live." Cooper's religious beliefs also informed his understanding of wealth, which was revolutionary in his time. He wrote, "The production of wealth is not the work of any one man, and the acquisition of great fortunes is not possible without the co-operation of multitudes of men." He believed it to be the responsibility of the wealthy to exercise Christian charity because "a good human intelligence," he explained, "feels bound to use all its powers to accomplish the greatest good [for] the greatest number." This may have been his intention when he founded The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. The cornerstone was laid in 1854 and in 1859 the Cooper Union was chartered with a mission unlike that of any institution of its time. It was founded on the belief that education should be, as Cooper expressed it, "free as water and air." As a result, it has remained tuition-free to this day, and has allowed working-class people access to what had formerly been reserved for the elite. In its founding deed Cooper articulated the vision of training men and women in practical and vocational arts so they could "earn their daily bread." He modeled the Union upon several polytechnic schools in Paris, the Birkbeck Institute in London, and the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. The Cooper Union offered its first course at night, to students ages sixteen to fifty-nine. The free Reading Room and Library was kept open until ten at night, admitting both women and men. The Cooper Union also provided free public lectures and was home to the offices of many celebrated Unitarians and Universalists, including Susan B. Anthony, Clara Barton, and Elizabeth Blackwell. After Cooper's death, Mary White Ovington and John Hayes Holmes worked from Cooper Union to organize the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). William Cullen Bryant and Horace Greeley spoke in the great hall. It was the setting for a celebrated 1860 speech by presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln. In 1876 Cooper, as candidate for the Greenback party, ran for president of the United States, but received less than one percent of the vote. The Cooper Union was not the only institution of higher education Cooper subsidized. At 87 he traveled south to help fund the Cooper-Limestone Institute. (This was eventually governed by the Spartanburg Baptist Association. Fifteen years after his death, renamed Limestone College, it broke all ties with his heirs.) After receiving generous support from the National Conference of Unitarian Churches for the founding of Antioch College, Horace Mann nominated Cooper as a trustee. Although he did not accept because preoccupied with the Cooper Union, he did provide funding. He spoke at the opening of Vassar Female College in 1865. Cooper did not escape criticism. Some deemed his vision for Cooper Union "amorphous, preposterous, and impractical." A few thought him a "snake in the grass" for using shops on the ground floor of Cooper Union as a way to skirt taxes. Cooper charmed his critics with the vision of a truly tuition-free institution, and some of them eventually became donors. Others remained convinced that his inventive and creative mind was hampered by uncritical idealism and stubbornness. Following Cooper's death, twelve thousand citizens passed by his coffin at All Souls Church. Robert Collyer, a Unitarian minister, gave the funeral address to a full house, while thousands more flooded the streets. Flags were lowered to half-mast and bells rang as Cooper's coffin was escorted to Brooklyn. The New York Herald recorded that no funeral in the memory of any living person could compare. One of the most beloved citizens of New York City in his time, Cooper inspired the charitable acts and civic responsibility of other tycoons such as Andrew Carnegie, George Peabody, Matthew Vassar, and Ezra Cornell. Primary documents pertaining to Cooper are found in the Archives at The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences. Peter Cooper's Letter to the Trustees [of Cooper Union] (1859, published 1956), Thoughts Presented to the Pupils of the Cooper Union (1859), Mr. Peter Cooper's Address (1860), Letter of Peter Cooper on Slave Emancipation (1863), Letter from Peter Cooper to the Delegates of the Evangelical Alliance (1873), Letter to the Episcopal Church Congress, with an Address to the Delegates of the Evangelical Alliance(1874), The Science of Religion as Explained by Peter Cooper to the Bishop (1874), "Peter Cooper's Religious Views: As Expressed in a Speech Delivered at the Ninety-First Anniversary of the Forsyth Street Methodist Church. Christianity the Science of a True Life - Charity the Greatest of All Virtues," National Journal (March 26, 1881), A Sketch of the Early Days and Business Life of Peter Cooper: an Autobiography (1887). A secretary assisted Cooper in his political, poetic, and theological writings. The Autobiography of Peter Cooper (1882), dictated by Cooper and transcribed from the original shorthand notes, is not often referenced in other works. John Celivergos Zachos, A Sketch of the Life and Opinions of Mr. Peter Cooper (1876), a collection of original sources composed by Peter Cooper, was put together to support Cooper's presidential nomination. Charles Sumner Spalding, Peter Cooper: A Critical Bibliography of His Life and Works (1941) contains an annotated list of Cooper's letters and works. Additional publications, and several photographs of Peter Cooper, can be found in the archives of All Souls Church, New York City. Edward C. Mack, Peter Cooper, Citizen of New York (1949) is the most comprehensive and thorough biography. Other biographies include Allan Nevins, Selected Writings of Abram S. Hewitt: With Some Account of Peter Cooper (1935) and P. Lyon, "Peter Cooper, the Honest Man," American Heritage(February 1959). See also Orville and M. E. Dewey, Autobiography and Letters of Orville Dewey, D. D. (1883) and R. Q. Topper, "Making Millions and Making a Difference: What We Can Learn from Peter Cooper," Henry Whitney Bellows Lecture, Historical Society of the All Souls Unitarian Church, New York City (1999).

What would not be included in a biographical sketch of Woodrow Wilson?

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