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What is the relationship between a cognate protein and its corresponding gene in the process of protein synthesis?
A cognate protein is a protein that is produced by a gene with a matching sequence. In the process of protein synthesis, the gene serves as a template for the production of the cognate protein through transcription and translation. The gene provides the instructions for the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein, which is then synthesized by the cell.
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What is the significance of cognate biology in understanding the evolutionary relationships between different species?
Cognate biology is important in understanding how different species are related through evolution. By studying similarities in genes and traits across species, scientists can trace their evolutionary history and determine how they are connected on a genetic level. This helps us understand the relationships between species and how they have evolved over time.
What is biologia mean in spanish?
"Biología" means "biology" in Spanish. It is a natural science that focuses on the study of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment.
What is the worlds largest berry?
The watermelon, Citrullus lanatus, produces the largest berry. The watermelon is, however, classified as a 'pepo,' sometimes called a 'false berry,' because of the plant's inferior ovaries. The name, however, is a false cognate, meaning that, despite being called a 'false berry' (also called an epigynous berry), pepos, including watermelons, are considered to be berries. The largest berries with a superior ovary are considered to be eggplants, avocados, and plantains.
Describe what happens before a eukartotic cell divides?
The Ordered Steps in the Cell CycleG1: The first gap in the normal cell cycle is called G1 and is the period when the necessary proteins for DNA replication are synthesized. However, this phase of the cell cycle is not only characterized by synthesis of replication machinery. During this period the cell must monitor both the internal and external environments to ensure that all the preparations for DNA synthesis have been completed and that overall conditions for cell division are favorable. As discussed below, there is a major check-point in a normal cell cycle that is critical for ensuring that all is well for the cell to enter S-phase.S-phase: The duplication of the cellular content of DNA occurs during S-phase, so-called because this is the phase when DNA is synthesized. This phase of the cell cycle is the longest taking 10-12 hours of a typical 24hr eukaryotic cell cycle.G2: During the second gap phase of the cell cycle the cell undertakes the synthesis of the proteins required to assemble the machinery required for separation of the duplicated chromosomes (the process called mitosis) and ultimately division of the parental cell into two daughter cells (the process termed cytokinesis). Like the G1 phase, the G2 phase is also a stage when the internal and external environments are monitored to ensure that faithful replication of the DNA has occurred and that conditions are favorable for cytokinesis. In addition, as for the G1 phase there is a major check-point at the end of the G2 phase that controls the entry into M-phase.M-phase: During M-phase there is an ordered series of events that leads to the alignment and separation of the duplicated chromosomes (called sister chromatids) This process is divided into distinct steps that were originally identified and characterized through light microscopic observations of dividing cells. The steps of mitosis are termed prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Although cytokinesis is the process by which the parental cell is physically separated into two new daughter cells, it actually begins during anaphase. The processes that occur during M-phase require much less time than those of S-phase, generally lasting only 1-2hrs.During prophase the duplicated chromosomes condense while outside the nucleus the mitotic spindle assembles between the two centrosomes. The centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center that is involved in the attachment of microtubules to the sister chromatids.During prometaphase the nuclear membrane breaks apart and the chromosomes can attach to spindle microtubules and begin active movement.During metaphase the chromosomes are aligned at the equator of the spindle midway between the spindle poles. The sister chromatids are attached to opposite poles of the spindle.During anaphase the sister chromatids synchronously separate to form the two sets of daughter chromosomes. Each sister chromatid is slowly pulled towards the spindle pole it faces.During telophase the two daughter chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and decondense. A new nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes which forms the two new nuclei. This process marks the end of mitosis and sets the stage for cytokinesis.back to the top Checkpoints and Cell Cycle RegulationIt should seem obvious that the processes that drive a cell through the cell cycle must be highly regulated so as to ensure that the resultant daughter cells are viable and each contains the complement of DNA found in the original parental cell. There are many "parts" to the systems that control the transit through a eukaryotic cell cycle. These "parts" include mechanisms to control the timing of events so that each individual process is turned on and off at the appropriate time, mechanisms to initiate each event in the correct order and to also ensure that each event is triggered only once per cell cycle, controls to ensure events occur in a linear, irreversible direction, redundancy, or back-ups to ensure the cycle functions properly even in the context of some malfunctioning parts, and systems that are adaptable so that cell cycle events can be modified in the context of different cell types and/or environmental conditions.Many of the most important discoveries about the mechanisms that control events of the cell cycle were elucidated using yeasts which are single cell eukaryotes. By analysis of various mutants that inactivated genes encoding essential components of cell cycle control systems in yeast many important control genes were identified. These genes were identified as cell division cycle genes or cdc genes. Thus, many cell cycle control genes in mammalian cells are also called cdc genes. Much of the control of the progression through the phases of a cell cycle are exerted at checkpoints. There are many such checkpoints but the two most critical are those that occur near the end of G1 prior to S-phase entry and those near the end of G2 prior to mitosis.As indicated above, there is the need for cell cycle control mechanisms to exert their influences at specific times during each transit through a cell cycle. The heart of this timing control is the responsibility of a family of protein kinases that are called cyclin-dependent kinases, CDKs. The kinase activity of these enzymes rises and falls as the cell progresses through a cell cycle. Different CDKs operate at different points in the cell cycle. As would be expected, the oscillating changes in the activity of CDKs leads to oscillating changes in the phosphorylation of various intracellular proteins. These phosphorylations alter the activity of the modified proteins which then effect changes in events of the cell cycle. The cyclical activity of each CDK is controlled by a complex series of proteins, the most important of which are the cyclins, hence the name of the enzymes as cyclin-dependent kinases. The CDKs are absolutely dependent upon their interaction with the cyclins for activity. Unless they are tightly bound CDKs have no kinase activity. The cyclins were originally idenitified because they undergo a cycle of synthesis and degradation at specific points in each cell cycle. Thus, whereas the levels of the various CDKs remain fairly constant throughout the cell cycle, their activities changes in concert with the fluctuations of the cyclins.Four different classes of cyclins have been defined on the basis of the stage of the cell cycle in which they bind and activate CDKs. These four classes are G1-cyclins, G1/S-cyclins, S-cyclins, and M-cyclins. The cyclin nomenclature and associated CDK in mammalian cells are listed in the following Table.Cyclin-CDK ComplexCyclinCDK PartnerG1-CDKcyclin D*CDK4, CDK6G1/S-CDKcyclin ECDK2S-CDKcyclin ACDK2M-CDKcyclin BCDK1***There are three D cyclins in mammals: D1, D2, and D3**CDK1 is the same as CDC2 in fission yeast and CDC28 in budding yeastThe G1-cyclins are not found in all eukaryotic cells but in those where they are synthesized they promote passage through a restriction point in late G1 called Start. The G1/S-cyclins bind to their cognate CDKs at the end of G1 and it is this interaction that is required to commit the cell to the process of DNA replication in S-phase. The S-cyclins bind to their cognate CDKs during S-phase and it is this interaction that is required for the initiation of DNA synthesis. The M-cyclins bind to their cognate CDKs and in so doing promote the events of mitosis.Although CDKs are inactive unless bound to a cyclin, there is more to the activation process than just the interaction of the two parts of the complex. When cyclins bind to CDKs they alter the conformation of the CDK resulting in exposure of a domain that is the site of phosphorylation by another kinase called CDK-activating kinase (CAK). Following phosphorylation the cyclin-CDK complex is fully active.In addition to control of CDK kinase activity by cyclin binding and CAK phosphorylation, control is exerted to inhibit CDK activity through interaction with inhibitory proteins as well as by inhibitory phosphorylation events. Thus, there is extremely tight control on the overall activity of each CDK. One of the inhibitory kinases that phosphorylates CDKs is called Wee1. The inhibitory phosphorylations are removed through the action of a phosphatase called CDC25. The action of these two regulatory enzymes on CDK activity is most important at the level of the M-CDK activity at the onset of mitosis. Proteins that bind to and inhibit cyclin-CDK complexes are called CDK inhibitory proteins (CKI, for cyclin-kinase inhibitor). Mammalian cells express two classes of CKI. These are called CIPs for CDK inhibitory proteins and INK4 for inhibitors of kinase 4. The CIPs bind and inhibit CDK1, CDK2, CDK4, and CDK6 complexes, whereas the INK4s bind and inhibit only the CDK4 and CDK6 complexes. There are at least three CIP proteins in mammalian cells and these are identified as p21Cip1/WAF1 (gene symbol=CDKN1A), p27KIP1 (gene symbol=CDKN1B), and p57KIP2 (gene symbol=CDKN1C). The expression of each of these CIPs is controlled by specific events that may have occurred during cell cycle transit. For example p21Cip1 expression is induced in response to DNA damage. This induction is under the control of the action of the tumor suppressor protein p53 (see below). There are at least four INK4 proteins that are each identified by their molecular weights: p15INK4B, p16INK4A, and p18INK4C (these were the first 3 characterized) as well as p19INK4. The p16INK4A protein is also a tumor suppressor since loss of its function leads to cancer. All the INK4 proteins contain 4 tandem repeats of a sequence of amino acids that were first identified in ankyrin and are thus referred to as ankyrin repeats.As indicated above, many cells reside in a resting or quiescent state but can be stimulated by external signals to re-enter the cell cycle. These external growth promoting signals are the result of growth factors binding to their receptors. Most growth factors induce the expression of genes that are referred to as early and delayed-response genes. The activation of early response genes occurs in response to growth factor receptor-mediated signal transduction resulting in phosphorylation and activation of transcription factor proteins that are already present in the cell. Many of the induced early response genes are themselves transcription factors that in turn activate the expression of delayed-response genes. In the context of the cell cycle, these delayed-response genes encode proteins of the G1-CDK complexes.One such early response gene is the proto-oncogene MYC. With respect to the cell cycle some of the genes turned on by activation of MYC are cyclin D, proteins of the ubiquitin ligase complex called SCF (Skp1/cullin/F-box protein) and the members of the E2F transcription factor family. There are six members of the E2F family: E2F1 through E2F6). The synthesis of cyclin D will result in the activation of G1-CDK complexes. The synthesis of components of SCF leads to the degradation of p27KIP1 which normally inhibits G1-CDK complexes. The synthesis of E2F family members results in increased synthesis of proteins involved in DNA synthesis as well as the synthesis of the S-phase cyclins A and E and CDK2. Regulation of E2F activity by the tumor suppressor pRB will be discussed below.The cyclical degradation of the cyclins is effected through the action of several different ubiquitin ligase complexes. The action of ubiquitin ligases in protein turn-over is discussed in more detail in the Protein Modifications page. There are two important ubiquitin ligase complexes that control the turn-over of cyclins and other cell cycle regulating proteins. One is the SCF complex which functions to control the transit from G1 to S-phase and the other is called anaphase promoting complex (APC) which controls the levels of the M-phase cyclins as well as other regulators of mitosis.One important function of APC is to control the initiation of sister chromatid separation which begins at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The attachment of the sister chromatids to the opposite poles of the mitotic spindles occurs early during mitosis. The ability of the sister chromatids to be pulled apart is initially inhibited because they are bound together by a protein complex termed cohesin complex. The cohesin complex is deposited along the chromosomes as they are duplicated during S-phase. Anaphase can only begin with the disruption of the cohesin complex. The breakdown of the cohesin complex is brought about as a consequence of the activation of the ubiquitin ligase activity of the APC. APC targets a protein called securin. Securin functions to inhibit the protease called separase and the action of separase is to degrade the proteins of the cohesin complex, thus allowing sister chromatid separation.back to the top Tumor Suppressors and Cell Cycle RegulationTumor suppressors are so called because cancer ensues as a result of a loss of their normal function, i.e. these proteins suppress the ability of cancer to develop. It would seem obvious, therefore, that one import function of tumor suppressors would be control of the progression of a cell through a round of the cell cycle. If cells are able to synthesize damaged DNA before it is repaired or to divide when the DNA is damaged then the resulting daughter cells can pass on the resultant DNA damage to their progeny. The result can be catastrophic resulting in cancer. For this reason, the two most important check points in the eukaryotic cell cycle are the G1-S transition and the entry into mitosis. The former prevents DNA replication prior to repair of damaged DNA and the latter prevents damage that may have occurred to the DNA during replication to propagated into daughter cells during mitosis. Following the isolation and characterization of two tumor suppressor genes in particular it was found that they function to control the ability of cells to progress through these two important checkpoints. The protein encoded by the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene (pRB) and the p53 protein are both tumor suppressors. The function of pRB is to act as a brake preventing cells from exiting G1 and that of p53 is to inhibit progression from S-phase to M-phase.The best understood effect of G1-CDK activity is that exerted on transcription factors of the E2F family, hereafter referred to simply as E2F. In the context of the cell cycle regulation, E2F activates the expression of cyclin A, cyclin E and CDK2. These proteins are components of the S-CDK complexes necessary for progression through S-phase. The activity of E2F is itself controlled via interaction with pRB. When pRB binds E2F it can no longer function as a transcription factor as it is sequestered in the cytosol. Interaction of pRB and E2Fcorrelates to the state of phosphorylation of pRB and the affinity between the two proteins is highest when pRB is hypophosphorylated. Phosphorylation of pRB is maximal at the start of S phase and lowest after mitosis and entry into G1. Stimulation of quiescent cells with mitogen induces phosphorylation of pRB, while in contrast, differentiation induces hypophosphorylation of pRB. One of the most significant substrates for phosphorylation by the G1 cyclin-CDK complexes is pRB. When pRB is phosphorylated by G1 cyclin-CDK complexes it releases E2F allowing E2F to transcriptionally activate its target genes. When E2F activates the expression of S-CDK complex proteins these complexes also target pRB for phosphorylation, thus maintaining the cell in a pro cell cycle progression state.Regulation of E2F by pRBOne major function of the p53 protein, which is active as a homotetrameric transcription factor, is to serve as a component of the checkpoint that controls whether cells enter as well as progress through S-phase. The action of p53 is induced in response to DNA damage. Under normal circumstances p53 levels remain very low due to its interaction with a member of the ubiquitin ligase family called MDM2. MDM2 is so named since it was isolated as an amplified gene in the tumorigenic mouse cell line 3T3DM. In response to DNA damage, e.g. as a result of uv-irradiation or γ-irradiation, cells activate several kinases including checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2) and ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM). One target of these kinases is p53. ATM also phosphorylates MDM2. When p53 is phosphorylated it is released from MDM2 and can carry out its transcriptional activation functions. One target of p53 is the cyclin inhibitor p21Cip1 gene. Activation of p21Cip1 leads to increased inhibition of the cyclin D1-CDK4 and cyclin E-CDK2 complexes thereby halting progression through the cell cycle either prior to S-phase entry or during S-phase. As a consequence of p53-induced synthesis of p21 expression, there is a convergence between the roles of p53 and pRB (as outlined above) in regulation of cyclin-CDK complexes. In either case the aim is to allow the cell to repair its damaged DNA prior to replication or mitosis.Even given the limited discussion of the functions of pRB and p53 it is still easy to understand how loss of either protein function can lead to aberrant cell cycle progression and the potential for the development of cancer.back to the top The Mechanics of Cell DivisionThe process of cell division must occur in a highly ordered and accurate manner so as to ensure that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the parental cells genome. Obviously the first step in this process is the accurate replication of the genome as described in the DNA Metabolism page. The processes described above relate to the regulation of the progressive steps taken as a cell progresses to cytokinesis. This section will discuss the biochemical processes undertaken to effect accurate separation of the duplicated DNA (the sister chromatids) and cytokinesis.Following duplication of the chromosomes the sister chromatids are held together through multisubunit protein complexes referred to as cohesins (described briefly above). These complexes are found all along the length of each chromatid as the DNA is replicated. Following DNA replication the chromosomes condense and this is the role of proteins called condensins. Chromosome condensation is the first easily identifiable sign that a cell is about to enter M-phase. Cohesins and condensins are structurally related and act in concert to prepare the chromosomes for mitosis.The task of separating the sister chromatids such that each daughter cell receives one copy of each chromosome is carried out by the mitotic spindle which is composed of microtubules and several proteins that interact with them. An additional cytoskeletal structure is required for the actual separation of the cell into two new cells. This structure is referred to as the contractile ring. The process of mitosis occurs through a highly ordered series of five steps as outlined above. The actual separation of the parental cell into two daughter cells can be considered the sixth step in mitosis. Whereas, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase occur in a strictly controlled sequential fashion, cytokinesis begins in anaphase and continues until the cell divides.During interphase the microtubule machinery is in a constant state of dynamic instability. Individual microtubules are growing or shrinking at any given moment. During prophase the activation of M-CDK complexes initiates a change in the microtubule structures to one where there are a large number of shorter microtubules surrounding each centrosome. The centrosomes are cytoplasmic nucleation sites for the mitotic spindles. M-CDK complexes initiate these changes via the phosphorylation of microtubule motor proteins and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs).During prometaphase the nuclear envelope abruptly breaks down as a consequence of M-CDK complexes phosphorylating the nuclear lamina. The dissolution of the nuclear membrane allows the microtubules to access the mitotic spindles. When microtubules attach to the mitotic spindle they become stabilized. The microtubules eventually become attached at the kinetochore which is a complex protein structure that assembles onto the highly condensed DNA at the centromere. The chromosomes are pulled back and forth by the microtubules eventually becoming aligned equidistant from the two spindle poles. The alignment of the chromosomes forms the metaphase plate. The chromosomes oscillate about the metaphase plate awaiting the signal that will induce the sister chromatids to separate. This phase of mitosis is referred to as the spindle-attachment checkpoint and it ensures that cells do not enter anaphase until all of the chromosomes are attached to both poles of the mitotic spindles. As described above, sister chromatids begin to separate with the activation of the APC. As each sister chromatid is pulled towards one of the poles of the mitotic spindle the kinetochore microtubules depolymerize.By the end of anaphase, the daughter chromosomes have separated to opposite ends of the cells and have begun to decondense which signals the onset of telophase. Telophase is denoted by the reassembly of the nuclear envelope around each group of daughter chromosomes. During this process the lamins that make of the nuclear lamina are dephosphorylated allowing them to re-associate with the nuclear envelope. Following the formation of the new nuclear envelopes, the chromosomes decondense into their interphase state and transcriptional activity begins anew. The cell is now ready for the final process, complete separation into two daughter cells.back to the topReturn to The Medical Biochemistry PageMichael W. King, Ph.D / IU School of Medicine / miking at iupui.eduLast modified: November 2, 2009
What is meant by pituitary gland?
Not to be confused with Phobos (mythology).ApolloApollo Belvedere, ca. 120-140 CE. God of music, poetry, plague, oracles, sun, medicine, light and knowledge Abode Mount Olympus Symbol Lyre, laurelwreath, python,raven, bow and arrows Parents Zeus and Leto Siblings ArtemisChildren Asclepius, Troilus, Aristaeus,Orpheus Roman equivalent ApolloAncient Greek religionHellenismosFeatures[show]Doctrines[show]Practices[show]Deities[show]Texts[show]See also[show]Hellenismos portalvteApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: Ἀπόλλων, Apollōn (gen.: Ἀπόλλωνος); Doric: Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: Ἀπείλων, Apeilōn; Aeolic:Ἄπλουν, Aploun; Latin: Apollō) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in ancient Greekand Roman religion, Greco-RomanNeopaganism, and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun, truth and prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.As the patron of Delphi(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oraculargod-the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses(Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermescreated the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titangod of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon.[1]In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of AeneasandLatinusin AeneidXII (161-215).[2]Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.Contents[hide] 1 Etymology1.1 Greco-Roman epithets1.2 Celtic epithets and cult titles2 Origins2.1 Healer and god-protector from evil2.2 Dorian origin2.3 Minoan origin2.4 Anatolian origin3 Oracular cult3.1 Oracular shrines4 Mythology4.1 Birth4.2 Youth4.3 Trojan War4.4 Admetus4.5 Niobe4.6 Consorts and children4.6.1 Female lovers4.6.2 Consorts and children: extended list4.6.3 Male lovers4.7 Apollo's lyre4.8 Apollo in the Oresteia4.9 Other stories4.9.1 Musical contests4.9.1.1 Pan4.9.1.2 Marsyas4.9.1.3 Cinyras4.10 Roman Apollo5 Festivals6 Attributes and symbols7 Apollo in the arts7.1 Art and Greek philosophy7.2 Archaic sculpture7.3 Classical Sculpture7.4 Pediments and Friezes7.5 Hellenistic Greece-Rome8 Modern reception9 See also10 Notes11 References11.1 Primary sources11.2 Secondary sources12 External linksEtymologyStatuette of the Apollo Lykeios type, Museum of the Ancient Agora of Athens (inv. BI 236).The etymology of Apollo is uncertain. The spelling Ἀπόλλων had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Απέλλων is more archaic, derived from an earlier *Απέλjων. The name is certainly cognate with the Doric month name Απέλλαιος and the Doric festival απελλαι.[3]Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι (apollymi), "to destroy".[4]Plato in Cratylusconnects the name with ἀπόλυσις (apolysis), "redeem", with ἀπόλουσις (apolousis), "purification", and with ἁπλοῦν (aploun), "simple",[5]in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀει-βάλλων (aeiballon), "ever-shooting". Hesychiusconnects the name Apollo with the Doric απέλλα (apella), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκός (sekos), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.Following the tradition of these Ancient Greek folk etymologies, in the Doric dialect the word απέλλα originally meant wall, fence from animals and later assembly within the agora. In the Ancient Macedonian language πέλλα (pella) means stone, and some toponyms are derived from this word:Πέλλα (Pella:capital of Ancient Macedonia), Πελλήνη (Pellini-Pallini).A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,[6]The form Apaliunas(dx-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš) is attested as a god of Wilusa[7]in a treaty between Alaksandu of Wilusa and the Hittite great king Muwatalli IIca 1280 BCE.Alaksandu could be Paris-Alexanderof Ilion",[8]whose name is Greek.[9]The Hittitetestimony reflects an early form *Apeljōn, which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot Απειλων with Doric Απελλων.[10]A Luwianetymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".[11]Among the proposed etymologies is the Hurrian and Hittite divinity, Aplu, who was widely invoked during the "plague years". Aplu, it is suggested, comes from the AkkadianAplu Enlil, meaning "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.[12]Greco-Roman epithetsApollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithetsapplied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ( /ˈfiːə/ fee-bəs; Φοίβος, Phoibos, literally "radiant"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.As sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes (/əˈɡliːtiːz/ ə-glee-teez; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from αἴγλη, "light of the sun"),[13]Helius (/ˈhiːliə/ hee-lee-əs; Ἥλιος, Helios, literally "sun"),[14]Phanaeus (/fəˈiːə/ fə-nee-əs; Φαναῖος, Phanaios, literally "giving or bringing light"), and Lyceus(/laɪˈiːə/ ly-see-əs; Λύκειος, Lukeios, from Proto-Greek*λύκη, "light"). The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddes of Lycia (Λυκία) and who was identified with the wolf (λύκος),[15]earning him the epithets Lycegenes (/laɪˈɛdʒəiːz/ ly-sej-ə-neez; Λυκηγενής, Lukēgenēs, literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia") and Lycoctonus (/laɪˈkɒktəə/ ly-kok-tə-nəs; Λυκοκτόνος, Lukoktonos, from λύκος, "wolf", and κτείνειν, "to kill"). As god of the sun, the Romans referred to Apollo as Sol(/ˈɒl/ sol; literally "sun" in Latin).In association with his birthplace, Mount Cynthuson the island of Delos, Apollo was called Cynthius (/ˈɪθiə/ sin-thee-əs; Κύνθιος, Kunthios, literally "Cynthian"), Cynthogenes(/ɪˈθɒdʒɨiːz/ sin-thoj-i-neez; Κύνθογενης, Kunthogenēs, literally "born of Cynthus"), and Delius (/ˈdiːliə/ dee-lee-əs; Δήλιος, Delios, literally "Delian"). As Artemis's twin, Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus (/dɪdɨˈmiːə/ did-i-mee-əs; Διδυμαιος, Didumaios, from δίδυμος, "twin").Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios(healer) at Bassae in southern Greece.Apollo was worshipped as Actiacus (/ækˈtaɪ.əkə/ ak-ty-ə-kəs; Ἄκτιακός, Aktiakos, literally "Actian"), Delphinius(/dɛlˈfɪiə/ del-fin-ee-əs; Δελφίνιος, Delphinios, literally "Delphic"), and Pythius (/ˈɪθiə/ pith-ee-əs; Πύθιος, Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pūthō, the area around Delphi), after Actium(Ἄκτιον) and Delphi(Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship.[16][17]An etiology in the Homeric hymnsassociated the epithet "Delphinius" with dolphins. He was worshipped as Acraephius (/əˈkriːfiə/ ə-kree-fee-əs; Ἀκραιφιος, Akraiphios, literally "Acraephian") or Acraephiaeus (/əˌkriːfiˈiːə/ ə-kree-fee-ee-əs; Ἀκραιφιαίος, Akraiphiaios, literally "Acraephian") in the Boeotian town ofAcraephia(Ἀκραιφία), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus; and as Smintheus(/ˈmɪθjuː/ smin-thews; Σμινθεύς, Smintheus, "Sminthian"-that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe")[18]near the Troadtown of Hamaxitus. The epithet "Smintheus" has historically been confused with σμίνθος, "mouse", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as Parnopius (/ɑrˈoʊiə/par-noh-pee-əs; Παρνόπιος, Parnopios, from πάρνοψ, "locust") and to the Romans as Culicarius (/ˌkjuːlɨˈkæriə/ kew-li-karr-ee-əs; from Latin culicārius, "of midges").Temple of the Delians at Delos, dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.Temple of Apollo Smintheus at Çanakkale, Turkey.In Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included Acesius (/əˈiːʒə/ ə-see-zhəs; Ἀκέσιος, Akesios, from ἄκεσις, "healing"), Acestor(/əˈɛtər/ ə-ses-tər; Ἀκέστωρ, Akestōr, literally "healer"), Paean(/ˈiːə/ pee-ən; Παιάν, Paiān, from παίειν, "to touch"), and Iatrus(/aɪˈætrə/ eye-at-rəs; Ἰατρός, Iātros, literally "physician").[19]Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.[20]The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus (/ˈmɛdɨkə/ med-i-kəs; literally "physician" in Latin) in this respect. A templewas dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.As a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus(/əˌlɛkɨˈkeɪkə/ ə-lek-si-kay-kəs; Ἀλεξίκακος, Alexikakos, literally "warding off evil"), Apotropaeus (/əˌɒtrəˈiːə/ ə-pot-rə-pee-əs; Ἀποτρόπαιος, Apotropaios, from ἀποτρέπειν, "to avert"), and Epicurius(/ˌɛɨˈkjʊriə/ ep-i-kewr-ee-əs; Ἐπικούριος, Epikourios, from ἐπικουρέειν, "to aid"),[14]and Archegetes (/ɑrˈkɛdʒətiːz/ ar-kej-ə-teez; Ἀρχηγέτης, Arkhēgetēs, literally "founder"), Clarius(/ˈklæriə/ klarr-ee-əs; Κλάριος, Klārios, from Doricκλάρος, "allotted lot"), and Genetor(/ˈdʒɛɨtər/ jen-i-tər; Γενέτωρ, Genetōr, literally "ancestor").[14]To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as Averruncus(/ˌævəˈrʌŋkə/av-ər-rung-kəs; from Latin āverruncare, "to avert"). He was also called Agyieus(/əˈdʒaɪ.ɨjuː/ ə-gwee-ews; Ἀγυιεύς, Aguīeus, from ἄγυια, "street") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and as Nomius (/ˈoʊmiə/ noh-mee-əs; Νόμιος, Nomios, literally "pastoral") andNymphegetes(/ɪmˈfɛdʒɨtiːz/ nim-fej-i-teez; Νυμφηγέτης, Numphēgetēs, from Νύμφη, "Nymph", and ἡγέτης, "leader") in his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life.In his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets Manticus (/ˈmætɨkə/ man-ti-kəs; Μαντικός, Mantikos, literally "prophetic"),Leschenorius (/ˌlɛkɨˈɔəriə/ les-ki-nohr-ee-əs; Λεσχηνόριος, Leskhēnorios, from λεσχήνωρ, "converser"), and Loxias (/ˈlɒkiə/ lok-see-əs; Λοξίας, Loxias, from λέγειν, "to say").[14]The epithet "Loxias" has historically been associated with λοξός, "ambiguous". In this respect, the Romans called him Coelispex (/ˈɛlɨɛk/ sel-i-speks; from Latin coelum, "sky", and specere, "to look at"). The epithet Iatromantis(/aɪˌætrəˈmætɪ/ eye-at-rə-man-tis; Ἰατρομάντις, Iātromantis, from ὶατρός, "physician", and μάντις, "prophet") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet Musagetes (/mjuːˈædʒɨtiːz/ mew-saj-i-teez; DoricΜουσαγέτας,Mousāgetās)[21]or Musegetes (/mjuːˈɛdʒɨtiːz/ mew-sej-i-teez; Μουσηγέτης, Mousēgetēs, from Μούσα, "Muse", and ἡγέτης, "leader").As a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetor (/əˈfiːtər/ ə-fee-tər; Ἀφήτωρ, Aphētōr, from ὰφίημι, "to let loose") or Aphetorus (/əˈfɛtərə/ə-fet-ər-əs; Ἀφητόρος, Aphētoros, of the same origin), Argyrotoxus(/ˌɑrdʒɨrəˈtɒkə/ ar-ji-rə-tok-səs; Ἀργυρότοξος, Argurotoxos, literally "with silver bow"), Hecaërgus (/ˌhɛkiˈɜrɡə/ hek-ee-ur-gəs; Ἑκάεργος, Hekaergos, literally "far-shooting"), and Hecebolus (/hɨˈɛələ/hi-seb-ə-ləs; Ἑκηβόλος, Hekēbolos, literally "far-shooting"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens (/ɑrˈtɪɨəz/ ar-tiss-i-nənz; "bow-carrying"). Apollo was called Ismenius (/ɪzˈmiːiə/ iz-mee-nee-əs; Ἰσμηνιός, Ismēnios, literally "of Ismenus") after Ismenus, the son ofAmphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow.Celtic epithets and cult titlesApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic godsof similar character.[22]Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières(Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.[23]Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.[24]Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in Wiltshire. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.[25]Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.[26][27][28]Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.[29]Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seinein Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.[27]Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains(Maine-et-Loire).[28][30]OriginsThe Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi.The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.[31]Walter Burkert[32]discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component."From his eastern-origin Apollo brought the art of inspection from "symbols and omina" ( σημεία και τέρατα : simia ke terata ), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualismbelonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatoliangod, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greekpeople.[33]Healer and god-protector from evilThe function of Apollo as a "healer" is connected with Paean(Παιών-Παιήων), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the MyceneanPa-ja-wo, but the etymology is the only evidence. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song "paeαn" (παιάν). The magicians were also called "seer-doctors" (ιατρομάντεις), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.[34]In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terribleVedic god of disease Rudra.[35]He sends a terrible plague (λοιμός) to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it, therefore when it stops they make a purifying ceremony and offer him an "hecatomb" to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.[36]Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are "paion" (παιών:touching), "epikourios" (επικουρώ:help), "oulios" (ουλή:cured wound), and "loimios" (λοiμός:plague). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called "apotropaios" (αποτρέπω:to divert) and "alexikakos" (αλέξω-κακό:defend, throw away the evil).[37]In later writers, the word, usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.[38]Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaicthanksgiving or triumph.[citation needed] Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: toDionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of thePython led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.Dorian originThe connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellaiis reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars,[39]but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word "pella" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).[40][41]The "Homeric hymn" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the "dark ages" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict withGaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.[42]The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.[43]The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne(δελφύς:womb), who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios, and a male serpent Typhon(τύφειν:smoke), the adversary of Zeus in theTitanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python.[44][45]Python was the good daemon (αγαθός δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoanreligion,[46]but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.[47]Apollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common inGermanic and Norsemythology.[35]In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader ( ηγεμόνη : hegemone) of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the NordicElves.[48]The "elf-shot" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.[49]The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called "The Archer", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva.[50]Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba, is a healer physician god.[51]However the Indo-Europeancomponent of Apollo, does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.Minoan originAn ornamented golden Minoanlabrys.It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaeanages.[52]In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, "the double-axe men", which indicates Minoanorigin. The double-axe (λάβρυς:labrys) was the holy symbol of the Cretanlabyrinth.[53][54]The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi[55]and the holy serpent Delphyne(womb). Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis(Diktynna), the Minoan"Mistress of the animals". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the "Mister of the animals", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. We don't know his original name, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more powerful Apollo, who stood by the "Mistress of the animals", becoming her brother.[48]The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolianorigin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.[56]However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.[57]Platodescribes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by "mania" (μανία:frenzy), a Greek word connected with "mantis" (μάντις:prophet). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC.[58]Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,[59]there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.[60]Anatolian originIllustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus fromAmbracia.A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.[3]The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydianorigin, and she was worshipped on the coasts ofAsia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babyloniantexts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain "purification".[33]A similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan- seerEpimenides, purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrificesand reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state.[61]The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to the historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.Homerpictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa(Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.[62]The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name αγυιεύς agyieusas the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.[63]However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonianorigin.[64]The Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and HurrianAplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaicsituation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babyloniangod of the sun Shamash.[12]Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god (δεινός θεός) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.[65]In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus,[66]the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.[67][68]All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.Oracular cultColumns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece.Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apolloand Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.[69]Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in thearchaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Claruspronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed."[3]Oracular shrinesDelos lions.Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore thetoponymicepithet Abaeus(Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος, Apollon Abaios) was important enough to be consulted by Croesus(Herodotus, 1.46). His oracular shrines include:Abae in PhocisBassae in the PeloponneseAt Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank.In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War.At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for ApollonSmintheusIn Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian(Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo.In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.[70]At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.In Segesta in SicilyOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.in Labadea, 20 miles (32 km) east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracleMythologyBirthApollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos(potter signed), Tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Louvre.When Zeus' wife Heradiscovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Letofrom giving birth on "terra firma". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemiswas born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἑβδομαγενής)[71]of the month Thargelion -according to Delian tradition-or of the month Bysios-according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.YouthFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonicdragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestusfor a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.[72]Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.Hera then sent the giant Tityos to kill Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acres (36,000 m²), where a pair of vulturesfeasted daily on his liver.Trojan WarApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.In the Iliad, when Diomedesinjured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphroditetried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.Apollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.AdmetusWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytusfrom the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed theCyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.[73]Apollo would have been banished to Tartarusforever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor as punishment, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetusof Pheraein Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Peliasand later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heraclesmanaged to "persuade" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows by Jacques-Louis David., Dallas Museum of Art.NiobeNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylosin Asia Minorand turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.Consorts and childrenLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.[74]Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made favorites some of them of painters since the Renaissance, so that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.Female loversMain article: Apollo and DaphneApollo and Daphne by Bernini in the Galleria Borghese.Daphne was a nymph, daughter of the river godPeneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi.[75]In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.Artemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi[76]in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,[77]had her own sacred laurel trees.[78]At Eretriathe identity of an excavated 7th and 6th century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", a "place where the citizens are to take the oath", is identified in inscriptions.[79]Leucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the "water which could speak", has been lost for ever.By Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-heroand taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.Hecuba, was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracleprophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.Cassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.Coronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to thecentaurChiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.In Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.Apollo and HyacinthusJacopo Caraglio; 16th-century Italian engraving.Acantha, was the spirit of the acanthustree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.According to the Biblioteca, the "library" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.[80]Consorts and children: extended listAcacallisAmphithemis (Garamas)[81]Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos[82]PhylacidesPhylander[83]AcanthaAethusaEleutherAganippeChios[84]Alciope[85]Linus (possibly)Amphissa / Isse, daughter of MacareusAnchiale / AcacallisOaxes[86]Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione MiletusAstycome, nymph Eumolpus (possibly)[87]Arsinoe, daughter of LeucippusAsclepius(possibly)EriopisBabylo Arabus[88]BolinaCalliope, Muse Orpheus(possibly)Linus(possibly)IalemusCassandraCastaliaCelaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / ThyiaDelphusChione / Philonis / LeuconoePhilammonChrysorthe CoronusChrysothemis ParthenosCoronisAsclepiusCoryceiaLycorus(Lycoreus)CreusaIonCyreneAristaeusIdmon(possibly)Autuchus[89]Danais, Cretan nymph The Curetes[90]DaphneDia, daughter of LycaonDryopsDryopeAmphissusEuboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris) AgreusEvadne, daughter of Poseidon IamusGryneHecateScylla(possibly)[91]HecubaTroilusHector(possibly)[92]Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)Hypermnestra, wife of OiclesAmphiaraus(possibly)Hypsipyle[93]Hyria (Thyria) CycnusLycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus Eicadius[94]Patarus[95]MantoMopsusMarpessaMeliaIsmenus[96]Tenerus[97]OthreisPhagerParnethia, nymph Cynnes[98]Parthenope LycomedesPhthia DorusLaodocusPolypoetesProthoe[99]ProcleiaTenes(possibly)PsamatheLinus, not the same as the singer LinusRhoeoAniusRhodoessa, nymph Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos[100]Rhodope Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones[101]SinopeSyrusStilbeCentaurusLapithesAineusSyllis / Hyllis ZeuxippusThaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph The CorybantesThemisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea[102]GaleotesTelmessus (?)TheroChaeronUrania, Muse Linus (possibly)Urea, daughter of Poseidon Ileus (Oileus?)Wife of ErginusTrophonius(possibly)Unknown consorts Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia[103]Chariclo(possibly)[104]ErymanthusMarathus, eponym of Marathon[105]Megarus[106]Melaneus
What is a linking verb that can be used with cognate?
A linking verb that can be used with a cognate is called a Transitive or Intransitive verb. The cognate is the verbs object.
In spanish what is the only month that is not a cognate?
"January" translates to "enero"
What is an example of cognate?
Cognate languages have many of the same roots for words. Ex: impaciente
What is the cognate a for English old?
The cognate for English "old" in Spanish is "viejo" and in French is "vieux".
Is saxophone a true cognate in Spanish?
Yes. In Spanish, "guitar" translates to "guitarra."
What is the cognate for the word precipice?
The word "precipice" has a cognate in Latin, which is "praeceps," meaning "headlong" or "steep."
How do you spell surgery in the Netherlands?
The Dutch word for surgery is the cognate chirurgie - or operatie which is a cognate of operation.
How would you use the word cognate in a sentence?
The English word "mother" and the Spanish word "madre" are cognates because they share a common Latin root.
What Spanish adjective is a cognate that means the same as fortitude?
No cognate comes to mind, but the closest translation is fortaleza.
Is fiesta a cognate?
Yes, "fiesta" is a cognate. It comes from the Spanish language and is directly related to the English word "feast", both of which refer to a large and festive gathering or party.
What is a non cognate?
not related
What is the English cognate of the Spanish 'soberbio'?
I don´t think it is really a "cognate". The closest I can think of would be "superb".
