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A system is an orderly arrangement of parts. The first type of system is the model that our scientific method is based on, the mechanical system or algorithm Descartes could not help but notice that the animals he dissected had mechanical features, such as the hip joint, that resembles the gears and levers of the mechanical clocks and mechanical animals of his day. Liebniz later envisioned a clockwork universe, where, given the knowledge of the position and momentum of each atom in the universe one could theoretically predict all future states. Mechanical systems lead to deterministic, highly predictable models and mathematically are described by linear relationships between parts. This means that a change in the position of a particular part X, will cause a predictive change in related parts by a fixed amount, kY.

Linear mechanical systems are a subset of the other type of system, referred to as a complex adaptive system. This term, introduced by scientist John Holland, refers to the larger set of more commonly encountered systems that have many more parts interacting in a non-linear, chaotic, and unpredictable manner. Examples include ecosystems, food webs, the Stock Market, cellular metabolism, cities, and so forth. The similarities between these different systems has resulted over the past 25 years formation of a new scientific discipline, the science of complexity. This field has become possible with the advent of high speed computers, which has made it possible to model the behavior of complex adaptive systems using Monte Carlo techniques. The parts in non-linear models are related by power laws, such as x-yk. This results in behavior that is mathematically chaotic and intrinsically less predictable or unpredictable. Many of the previously intractable problems of science are being understood better using complexity models. For example, health related behaviors are being studied using social network models, which measure the spread of behavior through social networks, another type of complex adaptive system.

In summary, most of scientific thought has been based on linear models that are simple and have relatively few elements. These are mechanical models. A second, more recently defined type of model involves many more elements interacting in a non-linear fashion that is complex and mathematically chaotic. In general, this second type of system is usually associated with living organisms and has an evolutionary, self-organizing origin.

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