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Cardiac output (CO) is determined by the heart rate (HR) and the volume of blood pumped by each beat (stroke volume - SV). Mathematically, cardiac output can be represented by the equation:

CO = HR x SV

As such, if total cardiac output falls as a result of decreased stroke volume, the heart rate can increase to keep the total cardiac output normal, to a certain extent.

Stroke volume is more complicated; it is determined by many different factors, including preload, afterload, competence of the atrioventricular valves, ventricular cavity size, and the strength of the squeeze of the cardiac muscle, amongst others. Any change in one of these factors requires a compensation in one or more of the others to maintain cardiac output.

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