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To answer this question, it is necessary to break up the birds of the world into three regions:
- the young, generally cool "Enriched World" dominated by young mountains and glaciated plains or hills. It comprises the northern extratropics, New Zealand and extratropical South America
- the hot, humid "Tropical World" comprising tropical Asia, the tropical Americas and Africa between the Equator and the Sahara
- the hot, arid and extremely ancient "Unenriched World" of Australia and subequatorial Africa
These "ecological regions" are sufficiently distinct that answering which birds lay once a year should consider them separately.
In the Enriched World, almost all birds with the exception of a few seed-eating finches like crossbills have a very well-defined breeding season, generally from April to June in the Northern Hemisphere and October to January in New Zealand and southern South America.
During this period, Enriched World birds may be either single-brooded (lay eggs only once a year) or multibrooded (lays more than once). Broadly speaking, small and medium-sized passerines, along with pigeons and in the Americas hummingbirds, are multibrooded and other Enriched World birds are single-brooded. However, in high altitude areas, New Zealand and southern South America where longer breeding cycles (slower incubation, larger eggs) are typical, even small birds are single-brooded.
In the Tropical World, breeding seasons are long but parental care is much more extended than in the Enriched World: parents much nourish young for quite long periods in order to forage effectively in a world with many poisonous plants and insects. High nest predation means that all but small birds tend to have trouble breeding more than once a year. The main "breeding season" in the Tropical World generally coincides with the wet season - from April to October in the northern hemisphere and October to April in the southern - though localised variations depending on rainfall patterns occur.
In the Unenriched World of Australia and Southern Africa, food is owing to the extremely ancient soils and dry climate very scarce. Moreover, because the primary influence on the climates of Australia and Southern Africa is not seasonal cycles but irregular nonannual events like tropical cyclones, the Indian ocean Dipole and ENSO, breeding is impossible in many years in most places. Even in the best years, the poor soils limit productivity compared to the Enriched or Tropical Worlds, but the hot climates and shorter breeding cycles than Tropical World birds allow for multibrooding in all but very large species.
This tendency to multibrooding is enhanced because in Australia and Southern Africa:
- stability of ENSO and IOD cycles means favourable conditions usually last for a full year during which birds can nest continuously
- high frequencies of cooperative breeding allow breeding pairs to lay many times while earlier broods are fed by "helpers at the nest".
Most typically the Unenriched World "breeding season" runs from August to January, though it is later for frugivores and earlier for terrestrial insectivores, whilst aerial insectivores and nectarivores take the trend of multibrooding to the most extreme and generally breed all year when conditions are favourable.
In all three ecological regions, there exist seabirds, large raptors and large parrots where breeding cycles are so long that annual breeding is impossible. When these do breed, they breed in the same seasons an annual breeders.
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