Is it true that the scientific attitude of skepticism helps scientists come up with good experiments to test hypotheses?

What experiment that led to avogrados hypothesis?

Occasionally both processes are carried out by the same person; often however, the observations have occurred long before a satisfactory explanation for them is thought up.An hypothesis is a tentative (as opposed to a theory which is well tested) explanation for observed events. An hypothesis is not a prediction, but it must allow you to make predictions which can be tested by experiment. When the results of those experiments are as predicted, it lends support to the hypothesis as a good explanation, and its eventual acceptance as a theory. If the results are not as predicted, the hypothesis must be modified, or replaced with a better explanation. No statement is an hypothesis unless it suggests a cause for an effect, and unless it has the possibility of being wrong. Which of the following is not a characteristic of an hypothesis? it lets us make predictions that can be experimentally testedlike a theory, it may be revisedwhen it is well established it will become a scientific lawit suggests a cause - effect relationship to explain why some event occursTruly revolutionary hypotheses, the kind that invalidate established beliefs, have often been initially rejected. This is especially true when a new idea contradicts that of well known scientists. Even scientists whose ideas were initially rejected accept this as the way science should work. For science is also full of examples of revolutionary ideas that did not stand up under the scrutiny of testing and verification. The non-discovery of cold fusion is probably one of the best known examples of this process in recent scientific history. Skepticism is one of the scientist's main tools. The late 1700's and early 1800's was a period of scientific revolution. Old ideas were crumbling, and new ones coming into place. It was an exciting time for chemistry. New concepts flowed out to explain the behavior of a new universe unfolding from Lavosier's combustion theory. New elements were being discovered, and new observations made that required explanation. Among those observations was the work of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), whose own father was arrested in 1793, just one year before Lavoisier lost his head to the guillotine in the French Revolution.One of the easiest ways to measure a gas is by volume (provided that we keep the temperature and pressure the same). In 1800 two English chemists, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlise had demonstrated that water could be decomposed by an electric current into two volumes of Hydrogen gas, and one volume of Oxygen -- a simple whole number ratio of 2:1.Following up on this idea, Gay-Lussac observed that when gases combined in chemical reactions they did so in ratios, by volume, that were always simple whole numbers. The following table shows this for a few reactions.Combining Volumes of GasesVolume of Gas 1(mL)Volume of Gas 2(mL)Ratio ofCombining VolumesHydrogen100.0Oxygen50.0H:O2:1Hydrogen90.0Nitrogen30.0H:N3:1Nitrogen50.0Oxygen100.0N:O1:2This observation - simple whole number combining ratios by volume - became known as the "Law of combining volumes". These results certainly suggested that the formulas for water might be H2O, for ammonia NH3, and for Nitrogen dioxide NO2.Consider the following combining gas volumes: Chlorine 50 mL Oxygen 25 mLWhat formula is suggested by the combining ratio of these gases? Cl2O ClO2 Cl5O2.5 Cl50O25 none of themHowever, this observation was not accepted by everyone. John Dalton for one, considered Gay-Lussac's work wrong. He believed water contained just one atom of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen ( in the symbols of the day). In today's symbols the forumla would be HO . If this was the right formula for water, then both Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes and Lavoisier's law of conservation of mass could not be right. This is illustrated in this diagram.Obviously something must be wrong. If two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen as shown to produce Dalton's HO molecules, then there would have to be some hydrogen left over. This would be a violation of the Law of Conservation of mass, and totally contradictory to Dalton's atomic theory. Dalton's response was to declare that only one volume of hydrogen reacted, and that Gay-Lussac's work was inaccurate.Since we don't think water is HO today, Dalton's idea must have been all wet! His conclusion that Gay-Lussac was wrong was not agreed to by everyone, including an Italian chemist, Amedeo Avogadro.Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro di Quareqa e di Carreto - Avogadro for short - was born in Turin, Italy in 1776, into a family of church lawyers. He too studied ecclesiastical law, earning his Bachelor's degree at the age of 16, and a Doctorate by 20. After three years he decided that a career in law was not to his bent, and he began to study science and mathematics in earnest. In 1809 he was appointed professor of Natural Philosopy at the Royal College of Vercelli in isolated Northern Italy. In 1811 he proposed his now famous hypothesis that equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.The reaction between Hydrogen and Oxygen according to Avogadro is shown in the following diagram. Notice thateach container has the same number of molecules in it. The ratio of the volumes is 2 hydrogen to 1 oxygen to 2 water, and there is nothing left over.This proposal, published in the French Journal de Physique went neglected by the European scientific community. Partly because it was published in an obscure journal, partly because it totally contradicted the opinions of John Dalton, it took fifty years before Avogadro's work was recognized.Avogadro made the distinction between atoms and molecules, which today seems clear. However, Dalton rejected Avogadro's hypothesis because Dalton believed that atoms of the same kind could not combine. Since it was believed that atoms were held together by an electrical force, only unlike atoms would be attracted together, and like atoms should repel. Therefore it seemed impossible for a molecule of oxygen, O2, to exist. Avogadro's work, even if it was read appears not to have been understood, and was pushed into the dark recesses of chemistry libraries and ignored. Avogadro continued to teach at the university of Turin, when it was not closed because of the political upheavals going on in Italy at the time, and died in 1854, an unknown figure. Which of the following statements is true? Equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of particlesMolecules such as O2 cannot exist because their like particles would repelAccording to Dalton the formula for ammonia would be NHWhen Avogadro made up his hypothesis, he was a lawyer for the Catholic churchWithout a clear distinction between atoms and molecules, European chemistry blundered ahead. By 1860 enough data had been collected on atomic weights to clearly indicate that something was seriously wrong. The world's first international conference on Chemistry was called at Karlsruhe, Germany in 1860 to try and resolve the issues. At this meeting, Stanislao Cannizaro, Avogadro's countryman, younger by fifty years, made a strong speech in which he explained the ideas of Avogadro that he had discovered two years earlier. He distributed copies of his "Sketch of a Course of Chemical Philosophy" which clearly showed the importance of Avogadro's principle, resolving the confusion with atomic and molecular weights. Very shortly, Avogadro's work was recognized for its brilliant deduction.With a clear understanding of how to measure atomic and molecular weights established, Chemistry proceeded rapidly. Less than a decade later, Dmitri Mendeleev who had also attended the Karlsruhe conference was able to use the newly established atomic weights to develop his periodic table. While chemistry is generally agreed to have started with Lavoisier, it could well be argued that modern chemistry started after the Karlruhe conference and the acceptance of Avogadro's hypothesis.In recognition of his idea, the number of fundamental particles in a mole of substance is called Avogadro's number. Although Avogadro had no idea what the number of particles in equal volumes of gases was, and did nothing to measure it, his hypothesis did lead to the eventual determination of this number, 6.02 x 1023Copyright © 1998 - 2008 David Dice

How do you use radiesthesia?

SECRETS OF PHYSICAL RADIESTHESIA /THE ROMAN ROD/ INTRODUCTION The revelation of the Roman Rod's secret began when I received a shabby old manuscript describing its construction. The old man that showed it to me claimed that his ancestors were all priests and that he had received this manuscript as a heritage, and that its secret had never been disclosed outside of his family. He faced my skepticism with the following words - Now you will see that the device works for real. He successfully demonstrated his device by locating one kilogram of silver, which I had hidden myself. He told me how he had conducted many tests, how he had devoted his life to this art, and how he had succeeded in discovering natural gold. However, this fortune was darkened by the lack of an offspring. He was incredibly miserable for the loss of his wife. The old man also shared his disappointment with his relatives, who always tried to extort him money and put a hand on his wealth. Then he explained to me in detail exactly what the cane (the roman rod) was, what was its construction, what were the necessary conditions to make it work, what were its advantages and disadvantages. Before I present to you what I have learnt then, I should mention, that what has crossed my mind right away, was the question about which physical phenomenon was hidden in this ancient device. Soon after this disclosure, the old man died and I devoted myself to research activity. It took me about ten years to discover the secret of the Roman Rod and the Physical Radiesthesia. I came to the conclusion that behind the success of the ancient radiesthesists, is hidden a completely real physical phenomenon, which I have called "Gravity resonance". In 2002, I began to formulate and publish* my new energetic paradigm about the construction of the Universe. The last one is based on the Energy quantum. In my theory there are only two fundamental forces (the Absolute Entropy and the Absolute Gravity), and the relativity is reversed (both energy and matter are relative in the absolute space-time). In one of the subsequent articles of this series, I will also publish an article about the Gravity Resonance. At first I had no intentions of publishing what I had learnt from the old man, but the substance of those articles has arrived close to the Gravity resonance and, at the end, I changed my mind. The time to publish the secret of the Roman Rod has arrived. CONSTRUCTION The original Roman Rod is made out of a glass tube. It is 70 cm long. On one of its ends is attached an axis. In front of the axis (on the long side) is placed a "resonator" (metal), and behind the axis (at the end of the tube) there is a reservoir filled with an exciter (clay). The axis is finely grinned, made of a copper alloy. The axis is placed in a cylindrical handle. It is made out of the same alloy and its bottom is curved out. This is how is formed a sort of a bearing. The glass tube itself (silicon) corresponds to the chemical element which is predominant in the earth's crust (the gravity background). The resonator is a cylinder made of gold, silver, copper or other metal. The resonator should be placed firmly in front of the axis, inside the glass tube (antenna) in front of the exciter. The exciter is a glass cylinder filled with radioactive clay. The old man used to call it "dead fuller's earth" due to the lack of something alive inside. For the better placement of the axis, the old man used to oil it with lard. Although quite primitive, this ancient locating instrument works for real. Using the Roman Rod you can locate (target) 500 grams of gold from a 200 meters' distance. Everybody can do it on his own, to test it and to assure himself in the authenticity of this ancient secret. BALANCE AND REACTION On the contrary to all expectations imposed on society by the "contemporary radiesthesists", you do not need powerful bio-energy or extra-sensorial abilities or any other type of extraordinary sensibility, in order to work with the Roman Rod. In order to make the instrument work in your hands, the essential condition is to master the balance of the device. In order to arrive at this skill you should free (empty out) the rod from the exciter and the resonator. You should practice for a very long period (at least a couple of weeks) to balance the empty rod. What you should strive to achieve is a very smooth, sweeping motion of the antenna in the horizontal plain, without any trembling, deviation or false biophysical (mental) reaction. With the empty rod you would not be able to locate any type of object, because the content of the antenna is identical with the surrounding background of the earth's crust. At first, it would probably be difficult for you to move smoothly the rod In order to make the training easier, you could lower the front end of the antenna slightly (two - three degrees), until you master the balance. You have to achieve a motion around un sector of 90 degrees for about 4-5 seconds. At first you could move the antenna a little bit slower (for about 7-8 seconds). The balance is easiest to achieve with a double handle. Your hands should be held tightly to your body, while the spinning movement of the device in the plain is produced by the waist. It is easier to make a movement with the hands (hand), but it is not smooth enough and will introduce instability and subjectivity to the test. After you have practiced like this for a couple of weeks, you may load the rod with the resonator and the exciter (see figure 1) It is important noticing that their positions are strictly fixed. If you exchange their places or if they are not in the indicated positions, the rod would not work. The old man was mocking the contemporary radiesthesists who would put into their mouth or hold in hand the "testimony". Some of them, who are more advanced, invent all types of antenna or put the indicator in all possible positions. However, all of them do not have the proper resonator and do not put it in the proper position. Now you may proceed with locating visible objects. In order to locate a visible object, you should be about 30-50 meters away from it. Start with the smooth, sweeping motion at least 30 degrees before the line that connects you with the position of the object. The first 5-10 degrees would be lost due to the occurrence of misbalance in the device (a complicated complex of a couple of movements). If you master the balance of the device and work in optimal conditions for Gravity Resonance, you should get a clear reaction in the direction of the object, which is observed when the antenna stops (remains) still towards the object regardless of your further movements. You may experiment by changing the speed of the movements and the slope of the antenna in order to achieve the most powerful possible reaction. In order to get a good balance, your sight should follow the front end of the antenna, and not be fixed on the object. Only after the device is in action (there is a clear reaction), you may, for one instant (momentary) look ahead in order to see the direction of the location. You should not move the device randomly without following the front end of the antenna and constantly looking ahead. This would worsen your balance and would introduce subjectivity to your test. For air objects the reaction of the rod is more accurate, but it is possible that the device work with some diversion (deviation) to the left or to the right. If you are too close (up to 30 meters), you will get a large diversion caused by the dying out of the horizontal gravity component and the influence of the Coriolis forces. In order to get a good reaction, you should master the balance of the device, should have a good resonator, an active exciter and the object should have a sufficient mass. Here are some examples of the minimal mass of the resonator and the object, which guarantee the proper functioning of the Roman Rod. Resonator - Object Gold 50 gr. - 500 gr. Silver: 100 gr. - 5000 gr. Copper: 150 gr. - 50 kg. A beginning operator, after 2-3 weeks of intense practices, could successfully locate the objects from the example from a 50-100 meters distance. An advanced operator could locate them from a double, and even greater, distance. The best reaction is obtained when the antenna moves around the horizontal plain (horizontally). If the front end is too inclined, then the reaction will be weak (poor). If you lift the front end of the antenna too much, the reaction will be strong, but the balance will be destabilized, which would introduce subjectivity to the test. If you do not obtain a clear reaction of the objects described above, you should continue practicing until you master the balance. Some people need much more time (months) in order to achieve satisfactory results in mastering the balance. Good balance is obtained after continuous practicing for at least a couple of months. If your hands are shaking, you can take up to 50 gr. of alcohol. The alcohol will calm your muscles and you will have smoother movements. When you obtain a clear reaction (location) of a visible object, then you may start to increase the distance, in order to master your sensibility to the strength of the signal. The more you practice with objects with different masses from different distances, the more you will develop an analytical sensibility to the strength of the signal. Practicing really, really a lot would allow you to obtain a routine and stable reaction. The smoother you get in your sweeping motion, the clearer the reaction (location) would be. When you are satisfied with your skills in locating known objects, you may begin to search for unknown objects on a testing field. It is important that before your friends hide an object from you, you use the rod in order to verify the presence of the some metal in the field. If there is a signal(s) then change the field. It is possible that there be an unknown objects or ore bodies. When working on an unknown territory, it is recommended that you begin the location from a position of at least a couple of tens of meters outside of the explored area. It is recommended that you be around 50 meters away in order to obtain a clear reaction and a minimal deviation. The smaller the mass of the object and the closer you are to it (in the nearby zone), the weaker the reaction will be and the larger deviations will be obtained (in regard to its actual position). It is important that you balance the antenna calmly and precisely and that you free yourself from the environment and from any kind of suggestions. Exploration with the Roman Rod is based on the Gravity Resonance and is by nature a physical reaction. A necessary condition for a successful location is the acquisition of a good balance. Worries, suggestions etc, could affect your balance and introduce a biophysical subjectivity to your test. Some operators who are more unstable psychologically are even able to invent an object(s) by damaging mentally the balance of the device. If necessary, move the rod more rigidly, which can cause you to miss a little metal object, but will guarantee that you do not receive unreal reactions (due to misbalance). Under complicated geological conditions (formation of mines, sharp geological boundaries, etc.) it is possible to feel trembling or pulling of the antenna. In this case, it could be necessary to repeat the test over one sector more than once. Under complicated conditions, repeat the test until you are certain that the reaction (location) you obtain is objective and clear. Exploring a limited area is easy when you divide it into quadrants of 100 x 100 meters. For each point of this grid, you should do a complete circular exploration with overlapping sectors. In order to cover the 360 degrees, you should do 5-6 sectors of 90 degrees. It is better that the overlapping is of 15-20 degrees. Do not forget that at the beginning and at the end of the movement, your balance is worsened. In case of a reaction, it is necessary to determine whether the signal is close or distant. In order to do this, move 30-50 meters to the left or to the right, perpendicular on the line of the location vector beam (refers to the vector along the axis of the antenna directed towards the object). From this new position, follow carefully the direction of the signal. If the beams are almost parallel, then the signal is distant. If you find out that the beams form a large angle, then you have a close signal. In the latter case, begin to walk around the object from a distance and enclose it with a series of beams located 30-50 meters away from each other. After a couple of subsequent beams you will have the intersection zone delineated. If you have been too close, you would have to step away in order to straighten the reaction and eliminate the deviations caused by the Coriolis forces. If, while you move away from the object (along the line of the location vector beam), the direction of the reaction changes, means that you have been too close. After you have identified well the intersection zone, you may proceed with locating of the object and identifying its position by (measuring the angles formed by) intersecting the location beams. In order to do this, you should identify the approximate center of the intersection zone. From this position, measure 50 meters in each of the four geographical directions. From these positions, make precise tests towards the intersection zone. It is possible that you obtain a deviation (left or right reaction) from the actual position of the object. If the deviation is large only from one of the directions, the object is usually closer to this position. For further guarantees you may increase the distance from the points to 70 meters. Use roulettes, threads, landmarks and other auxiliary means of signaling and precise measuring of the beams. Do not try to artificially (biophysically) reduce (limit) the area enclosed by the beams. It is better to measure a larger zone and keep the object inside, instead of covering a smaller area and leave the object outside of it. Besides the distance, you should also measure the displacement of the device (the antenna) from the position of the object. If the object is located sharply under or over your level, it is possible to have no reaction at all. If you are looking for a large object, but the signal is too weak, it is possible that you have a large displacement or a large distance from it. You should also keep in mind that the device functions in the horizontal plain (antenna horizon). The antenna of the device functions along the horizontal line, due to the horizontal gravity component! When exploring an intercepted terrain you should locate the quadrants so that you do not have more than 10% of displacement from the destination. This means that, if the object is 100 meters away, the displacement of the antenna horizon from the position of the object should not exceed 10 meters. It is best that for every 5-10 meters of displacement, you have an exploration point. You should keep in mind that the sharp changes in the layout of the terrain as well as the complex land formations may lead to larger deviations, unclear reaction and even loss of signal. The conditions for the gravity location are good when the terrain is flat, the object is big and the distances are little (up to a couple of hundred of meters). If the object is placed in a cave or other type of a build structure, it is possible to obtain substantial deviations (to the right or to the left) from its actual position. The reaction of large point objects is the clearest and the easier to identify. Linear objects produce different reactions from the different positions. If you are along the line of their location, you would obtain a point reaction If you are perpendicular to their line, you would have a stretching (long) reaction or two reactions, one at each end of the object. For areal objects, the reaction is usually stretched, weaker when entering the area of the object and stronger when leaving it. You should always explore the terrain with double motions, from the left to the right as well as from the right to the left. Thus, you will be able to identify the differences in the signal, which are typical for point, linear and areal objects. You should always exam the entire 360 degrees (with the overlapping of the sectors) in order not to miss a signal. If you follow a signal only with little sectors, it is possible to lose it or to go after a new (another) signal, which you have not detected from the more distant points during the test. You should always work under optimal conditions for the gravity resonance. If the meteorological conditions are not suitable, postpone the test or make a shelter on every spot. You should remember that the wind, even if not strong, introduces significant deviations (takes away the antenna) and could confuse also an experienced operator. MAINTENANCE Apart from being fragile (the original is made of glass), the rod has for an exciter a radioactive clay, which gets consumed. It is recommended that you change the clay with a fresh (active) one every month. Preserve the clay in a dark and humid place (a basement, bunker etc.). Thus you guarantee your reserves for a couple of months. If your pieces are large (50 x 50 cm) and are properly stored, you will have a resource for the entire year. More or less, this is what I have learnt from the old man. I have added some important dependencies and a little terminology (gravity interaction, gravity resonance, antenna horizon, horizontal gravity component, etc) for further clarity and better understanding of this phenomenon. The information obtained from the old man was sufficient for my initial successful experiments, but proved to be insufficient for the precise location and location of objects. RESEARCH ACTIVITY From the moment I touched the rod we became one. It took me a couple of months to master perfectly the balance and to achieve good location of known objects. However, working on a training field I had to face deviations, a series of complicated dependencies and many unknowns. This forced me to begin a detailed scientific research of the prototype and the physical phenomenon in order to clear out the functioning principle. This research has taken many years and I still continue to experiment and develop the ultimate prototype. I am currently on the fourth generation of my work, I have achieved hundred times more powerful reaction (of that of the Roman Rod), the exactness of the location is twice more precise, and the activation is harmless. During the research process, I have managed to achieve a significantly better location, because I improved the construction of the prototypes and developed the resonators. Step by step, I figured out many of the gravity effects as well as other dependencies, and then I formulated the new theory for the fundamental forces. The functioning principle of the Roman Rod, as well as of the Physical Radiesthesia (not the mental or the mixed one), is based on the gravity interaction. Under certain conditions and the proper activation of the resonator, occurs a difference between the gravity mass and the inertia mass. The latter ones are not completely equivalent, as Einstein thought! Due to this, occurs a phenomenon which I call - the Gravity Resonance. The essence of this phenomenon is the increase in the gravity attraction between objects composed of the same chemical element. In the Universe, does not exist Dark Matter and Dark Energy, but there are effects from the phenomenon unknown to science - the Gravity Resonance. Indeed, it is the Gravity Resonance that underlines the success of the Roman Rod and the Physical Radiesthesia in ancient times. The Roman Rod is an ancestor of different and even more ancient dowsing rods invented by the Thracians, the Egyptians and other ancient geo explorers. Here, in Bulgaria, has been found the most antique gold in the world. This gold did not fall from the sky. It has been detected, extracted and processed by the ancient Thracians on our territories. The ancient radiesthesists have accumulated a significant volume of empirical knowledge, which have been passed, enlarged and improved by the following generations. This knowledge was passed only in the priest's families and was carefully hidden, as a sacred secret. Unfortunately, during the Middle Ages, this secret knowledge has been persecuted and permanently destroyed. A few unknown heroes have managed to secretly preserve it. I feel extremely lucky that such knowledge was proposed to me. If the Roman Rod had not functioned, I would not have undertaken such a serious research work, but it did and I could not find peace. Thus, with many tests and research work, I managed to take a peak in the great secret of the Universe - the Fundamental forces and the Gravity Resonance. However, I will not expose my scientific achievements here and deal with theoretical contemplations and analysi.

Is it true that the scientific attitude of skepticism helps scientists come up with good experiments to test hypotheses?

Add your answer:

What experiment that led to avogrados hypothesis?

Is it possible to break the laws of gravity?

How do you use radiesthesia?

When scientists read research articles in scientific journals they apply skepticism to?

When scientists read research articles in scientific journals they apply skepticism in order to?

Why is it difficult for scientists to replace an old paradigm with a new paradigm?

A way of understanding the world based on science?

What are the scientic attitudes?

What are the characteristics of the scientific attitude?

What is scientific attitude of having doubt?

What is the scientific attitude of having doubt?

Name and explain the importance of three scientific habits of mind?

Scientists' skepticism should be balanced with an ability?

What is the scientific attitude of having doubt is called?

Why should scientists balance open-mindedness with skepticism?

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