Franklin D. Roosevelt

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(b. Hyde Park, New York, 30 Jan. 1882; d. 12 Apr. 1945) US; Governor of New York 1929 – 32, President 1933 – 45 Born to well-to-do parents of Dutch and Flemish descent, Roosevelt was educated at Groton, Harvard University, and Columbia Law School. Each of his parents was independently wealthy and supportive, and he enjoyed a leisurely and liberal upbringing. Though he enjoyed reading, he did not apply himself to scholarship and coasted through his education, paying more attention to getting onto the football team at Harvard (he failed) than to his grades. At Harvard, he edited the student newspaper, but his educational career was undistinguished. He was married young — in 1905 — to a distant cousin, Eleanor, and after taking his bar exams in 1907 practised law in a New York City firm.

A leisurely life as a lawyer soon lost its appeal and in 1910 he accepted an invitation by Democratic leaders in upstate New York to contest a seat in the state Senate. He threw himself into the race and achieved an unexpected victory. His spell in the New York Senate allowed him to develop his political skills and he showed some independence by leading a revolt against the choice of the party bosses in the selection of a candidate to a fill a vacancy for a US Senate seat. He was re-elected in 1912. The same year he attended the Democratic Convention and worked hard to deliver the New York delegation to Woodrow Wilson, a task in which he was ultimately successful. Wilson rewarded him by appointing him Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Roosevelt was delighted. He loved the sea and it was a post once held by his distant cousin, Theodore Roosevelt. He performed creditably in the post — he was an efficient administrator — and helped prepare a fleet ready for combat in the First World War. He continued in the post after contesting unsuccessfully the nomination for a US Senate seat in 1914. He was an observer at the Versailles Peace Conference. In 1920 he seconded the nomination of Alfred E. Smith as Democratic candidate for President. The convention chose James E. Cox instead. Cox then chose Roosevelt as his running-mate. Roosevelt had a well-known name, experience in government, and helped balance the ticket, but 1920 was a Republican year and the pair went down to a heavy defeat. The contest nonetheless established Roosevelt as a national figure.

The following year Roosevelt was struck by personal tragedy. Suffering one evening from a chill after being in icy water, he went to bed and awoke in pain to find his legs would not support him. He was paralysed from the chest downwards, the victim — at the age of 39 — of infantile paralysis. Recovery was initially slow but Roosevelt fought to regain some degree of independence and to rebuild his life. The effect of the illness was to galvanize him, to give him a determination that was previously lacking in his somewhat pampered existence. He learned to walk a few steps with the aid of leg braces. He drove a specially adapted car. He was later to develop a technique of appearing to walk while holding for support on aides. He resumed his legal career. Three years after being struck down he also briefly re-entered politics. He nominated Alfred E. Smith — the Governor of New York — as candidate for President at the 1924 Democratic convention. The convention again opted for another candidate but Roosevelt's powerful speech was greeted with a prolonged ovation. He had started his political comeback. When four years later, the Democratic nomination did nominate Smith, Smith urged Roosevelt to run for the governorship of New York. Roosevelt was reluctant — he hoped treatment would still allow him to walk without braces — but was nominated by acclamation by his party's state convention. After a vigorous campaign throughout the state, Roosevelt bucked the national Republican tide by winning election with a majority of 25,564 votes. Sixteen years after being elected to the state Senate, he was back in elective office. He proved to be an activist in office, pushing (not always successfully — the State Legislature was Republican-controlled) for new and radical programmes. Following the onset of the Depression, the political tide turned in his favour and he was re-elected by an overwhelming majority in 1930. His victory established him as a potential candidate for the presidency.

As Governor of New York he was to adopt practices and policies that were to be drawn on later when he entered the White House. He utilized a "Brains Trust" of leading figures to advise him and he presented a range of measures — including unemployment relief, old-age pensions, and farm relief — to tackle the effects of the Depression. He instituted a Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to assist those in need in the state. He also stood up to party bosses and in his second term moved against the scandal-ridden New York city machine, achieving the resignation of the mayor.

Roosevelt built up his team of advisers and began planning a bid for the presidency. He was one of four candidates when the Democratic convention met in 1932. After some horse-trading, he was nominated on the fourth ballot. He accepted the nomination in person and made his famous declaration, "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people." He selected House Speaker John Nance Garner, a Texan, as his running mate (a consequence of the convention horse-trading) and started out on a nationwide campaign. He advocated unemployment relief and tariff reform and was committed to a repeal of prohibition. He started to attack the powerful business corporations and to promote a more equitable distribution of wealth. Roosevelt offered hope against the tired administration of Herbert Hoover and won an overwhelming victory by 22,809,638 votes to 15,758,901. Three months after his victory he survived an assassination attempt in Florida (five others were wounded, one fatally, by the shots from a deranged unemployed bricklayer) and was inaugurated on 4 March 1933. In his address, he declared that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself". The country "asks for action, and action now. Our greatest primary task is to put people to work".

No sooner was he ensconced in the White House than he embarked on a hectic programme of reform. He closed the banks for four days. Congress was summoned into special session on 9 March and in a 100-day sitting was sent a raft of measures. Greater powers were taken to control the economy. The Emergency Banking Relief Act gave the President and the Treasury greater powers over the control of credit, currency, and foreign exchange. By resolution of Congress, the USA went off the gold standard. Public spending was reduced — the Economy Act cut federal salaries — and tax revenue increased: the Beer-Wine Revenue Act legalized the sale of the drinks and brought them within the tax mechanism. (Prohibition was repealed with the successful passage of the 21st Amendment.) The best-known measures were those providing federal relief. The Federal Emergency Relief Act gave direct relief to the states and localities, the Agricultural Adjustment Act subsidized farmers, the National Industrial Recovery Act established the Public Works Administration to create work in construction as well as protecting the rights of labour, and the Civilian Conservation Corps was founded to provide work for young men in public works projects. The Tennessee Valley Authority was created to administer a massive works programme throughout the Tennessee Valley, providing work for thousands, building dams, and generating an unprecedented public utility in the form of electricity.

The measures provided the basis for Roosevelt's New Deal. Even after the famous first "100 Days", Roosevelt was not finished. Later measures followed. Greater regulation of the economy and the stock market was introduced. More public works projects were established. Labour rights were extended. The Social Security Act of 1935 broke new ground in making provision for relief to the unemployed, the disabled, the needy, and for retirement payments to the elderly. Within three years of taking office, Roosevelt had changed dramatically the relationship between the public and private sector in making provision for the citizen.

Roosevelt's New Deal measures helped restore public confidence but they attracted opposition from significant sections of the business community and especially many in the financial community. Some of the measures also fell foul of the Supreme Court. In May 1935, the court struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act as unconstitutional, claiming that it imposed regulations on intrastate activity not permitted by the constitution. The Agricultural Adjustment Act and other acts were also later struck down.

Such setbacks did not prevent Roosevelt from sweeping to victory in the 1936 presidential election, carrying every state bar two against his Republican opponent, Kansas Governor Alf Landon. He amassed almost 28 million votes against less than 17 million for Landon. Although he was to be elected to the presidency twice more, this election constituted Roosevelt's high point in the domestic politics of the USA. Thereafter, he was not to achieve the success he had in his first term. He sought to limit the Supreme Court by introducing a bill giving him power to appoint a new justice for every existing justice over the age of 70. Congress rejected his "court packing" proposal. The measure appeared to achieve its purpose, even though it was not passed: members of the court were worried by what had happened and two of them switched sides in votes on subsequent New Deal measures (known as "the switch in time that saved nine"). However, it served to sour relations between President and Congress and Roosevelt compounded the situation in 1938 by campaigning in the congressional elections against members who had opposed his plans. He failed in his efforts and the Republicans made significant gains. Though Roosevelt achieved passage of some measures in 1938, the outcome of the elections in November put an end to a continuation of the New Deal. Thereafter the President achieved the passage of no major domestic legislation.

The President's attention was being drawn more and more towards events in Europe and Asia. In 1937 and 1938 he warned of what was happening in Europe. Congress for its part passed in 1937 a Neutrality Act, imposing an arms embargo. Roosevelt responded to the Soviet-German non-aggression pact and the German invasion of Poland in 1939 by asking Congress to lift the arms embargo. Congress refused. In 1940 Roosevelt acted unilaterally, providing the United Kingdom with fifty old American destroyers in return for leases on military bases in the West Indies. As the Axis powers made further territorial gains, Roosevelt pressed for an increase in the production of planes. At the same time, a peacetime draft was introduced.

In pressing for help to the Allies, Roosevelt was running ahead of public opinion — there was widespread opposition to involvement in the war — and doing so at a time when a presidential election was imminent. Roosevelt defied tradition by seeking and gaining nomination for a third term. He remained popular but circumstances were not as propitious as in 1936. His decision to run was used against him and the Republicans nominated a popular and moderate candidate, Wendell Willkie. Promising not to send Americans into foreign wars, Roosevelt won comfortably, but not as decisively as he had four years before. He won 27 million votes to 22 million for Willkie.

Roosevelt continued to take measures to help the Allies and to develop America's fighting capability. American forces were stationed in Greenland and Iceland. Ships belonging to Axis powers were seized in US ports after a Nazi submarine sank a US destroyer. Roosevelt, however, still faced a powerful "America First" movement. The issue was resolved on 7 December 1941 when Japanese forces attacked the US fleet in Pearl Harbor. The following day Roosevelt addressed Congress — dubbing 7 December "a date that will live in infamy" — and sought a declaration of war, which was duly forthcoming. Thereafter Roosevelt was transformed into a powerful war leader, his powers as Commander-in-Chief giving him a latitude in foreign affairs that was denied him in the domestic arena. The American war effort was stepped up dramatically, Roosevelt met with the British Prime Minister, Churchill, and later with Churchill and the Soviet leader, Stalin, to co-ordinate Allied strategy. Roosevelt was the most powerful figure — with America having a combination of economic power and manpower that could not be matched by Britain and (in economic terms) by Russia. Roosevelt was able to determine the broad strategy, leaving the implementation largely to some very able military leaders. His leadership was as important in the domestic arena as it was in the military. He provided the same inspiration to the American people in the war as he had done during the Depression. The war also served to bring the nation out of the Depression, rearmament providing the boost that had not been provided by Roosevelt's New Deal measures. The United States ended the war as the most powerful economic nation.

Roosevelt's wartime leadership put him in a powerful position to seek re-election in 1944. Though clearly ailing, he was leading the nation at time of war. He dumped his left-leaning Vice-President, Henry Wallace, in favour of Senator Harry S Truman, and together they won a race that was the closest of Roosevelt's career: 25.6 million votes to 22 million for the Republican, Thomas E. Dewey. Three months after the victory, Roosevelt met with Churchill and Stalin at Yalta to decide the postwar map of Europe, a map that was to prove highly controversial. In order to maintain Soviet support, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to a disposition of forces that was later to be used by Stalin in imposing Soviet control in Eastern Europe.

Roosevelt looked unwell at Yalta, a fact commented upon by Churchill. On his return to the USA, the President addressed Congress but did so from a chair. He went to Warm Springs, Georgia — to a health resort which he had helped create — to rest. On 12 April, complaining of a headache, he collapsed, went into a coma, and — two hours later — died of a brain haemorrhage. He was 63 years of age.

Roosevelt is the outstanding President of the twentieth century. In polls of historians, conducted variously since 1948, he has always been voted among the three greatest presidents in US history, Lincoln always coming first and Roosevelt or George Washington coming second. Roosevelt transformed the office of the President and, indeed, transformed the economic and social structure of the United States. He built the presidential office into a powerful and organized unit of government. He established the Executive Office of the the President. He drew on many of the leading minds of the time. He transformed the President into Chief Legislator as well as — in the terminology of Emmet John Hughes — the Maker of World Peace. He not only made the President the most powerful person in the USA, he also made him the most powerful elected official in the world.

Roosevelt achieved all this despite being confined to a wheelchair. His disability was hidden from the public. Roosevelt was a great showman. He knew how to charm. He also knew how to act and recognized a good idea when he saw one. He was not an original thinker, but he brought in a team of first-rate thinkers and drew on their ideas as he saw fit. He was not averse to drawing on ideas originating from other sources. Many New Deal measures had their genesis in congressional bills. Roosevelt picked them up, revised them, and presented them as his own creation. He liked to be in control. He vetoed bills in order to demonstrate to Congress who was in charge. He appointed groups of advisers to provide advice on the same topic so that he could choose between them. He achieved a mastery of government unsurpassed in the history of the presidency.

At the personal level, Roosevelt achieved his ambitions despite his physical handicap, perhaps even because of it: his illness and recovery gave him a determination to succeed. He was a man who threw himself into his work and achieved a high level of emotional reward from it. He pushed as far as he could go — sometimes, in the eyes of critics, too far — and demonstrably enjoyed exercising power. He had a remarkable wife who became a public figure in her own right. More socially aware than Franklin, she showed him areas of social deprivation that shocked him. She busied herself in doing good works, both during the Depression and during the war. In many ways, she was Franklin's "legs", visiting stricken communities and raising morale among the troops. Franklin's infidelity — he had an affair with Eleanor's social secretary, Lucy Mercer, who was to be at his side when he died — appeared to contribute to them leading separate lives, though Eleanor remained a powerful influence, once likened to a Minister without Portfolio. She has since served as an icon for many feminists.

Roosevelt's presidency has been subject to various revisionist interpretations, including those that argue that the New Deal should be credited to Congress and to Roosevelt's advisers, and that Roosevelt manipulated US entry into the Second World War. Such interpretations have not dented Roosevelt's standing. He is viewed as having been the right man for the right time — providing inspiration and leadership at a time when Americans cried out for it. His presidency has provided the benchmark for his successors.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1882-1945), US president 1933-45 during the Great Depression and WW II. He served four and a half years longer than any other, and if the monumental busts of the four greatest presidents were to be sculpted on Mount Rushmore today, his would join those of Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln by acclamation, replacing his distant cousin and youthful inspiration Theodore, whose niece Eleanor he married in 1905. She was to prove a formidable political asset throughout his career; less welcome was her self-appointed role as his social conscience.

Nothing FDR did as president is quite as remarkable as the fact that he won the office at all, despite being an aristocrat and wheelchair-bound after an attack of polio in 1921. Like Theodore before him, early in his career he sparred with his own New York party's corrupt urban ‘machine’, but unlike him he won two terms as governor (1928 and 1930) against a country-wide Republican tide, during which time he matured and learned the virtue of accommodation. The platform that bore him to the presidency in 1932 in the midst of the Great Depression was for further deflation and austerity, but once in power he implemented the ‘New Deal’, a greatly expanded version of the programme advocated by his opponent Hoover, doomed by incumbency when industrial production fell by 40 per cent and there were 13 million unemployed.

Although it was WW II that brought the economic depression to an end, the New Deal and FDR's reassuring radio broadcasts were effective in countering the no less significant psychological depression gripping the country. He was never a Keynesian and the money his numerous new ‘Alphabet Agencies’ (FERA, CCC, RFC, AAA, NIRA, WPA, etc.) poured into the economy was incidental to his main aim of restoring hope and confidence. The most abidingly popular of his measures was the provision of a state pension scheme with the Social Security Act of 1935, but his main ambition was crowned by winning various test cases before a generally hostile Supreme Court, which affirmed almost unlimited federal power to regulate the economy.

With characteristic insouciance, he campaigned for his unprecedented second re-election in 1940 with the promise to keep America out of the wars engulfing the rest of the world, while conducting what can only be called a conspiracy with Churchill to do the opposite in Europe, and pursuing a policy actively hostile to Japanese expansionism in the Far East. Once re-elected, he subverted his own Neutrality Acts and aligned the USA firmly on the side of Britain against Germany with the Lend-Lease Act and by taking over convoy escort duties in the eastern Atlantic. He anticipated a Japanese attack in south-east Asia and the Philippines but was outraged when they also struck at Pearl Harbor, after which Germany and Italy did Britain and the USSR the enormous favour of declaring war on the USA in solidarity with their Axis ally.

FDR had, barely, managed to keep conscription (‘the draft’) in being and had quietly organized agencies to direct a war economy, such that overwhelming American industrial and manpower resources were promptly mobilized and rapidly deployed under the brilliant direction of Nimitz in the Pacific and Marshall in Europe. Being better served by his military commanders, FDR was not tempted to exercise operational control, unlike Churchill or his own great predecessor Lincoln. He did adopt the latter's formula of ‘unconditional surrender’ with greater justification, given the very real criminality of Nazi Germany and imperial Japan and the need to maintain unity among allies who might otherwise have been tempted to make deals at each other's expense.

His vision for the post-war world was based on the ‘five policemen’ concept in which the USA, Britain, France, China, and the USSR would work together to preserve peace through the UN. Reluctant to admit that he indulged in appeasement, apologists argue that ill health undermined his faculties and permitted Stalin to ‘bamboozle’ him at Yalta in February 1945. This is to deny ample evidence that he regarded Churchill as the greater obstacle to his vision of a post-war world advancing to harmony through the pursuit of the ‘self-evident’ principles of the US Declaration of Independence. It remains a quintessentially American mystery how such a shrewd politician could have believed with such heartbreaking sincerity that events in China would develop favourably to his vision, or that bankrupt Britain could long sustain an independent worldwide role, or that the Soviet dictator would sincerely espouse principles that self-evidently undermined his own power.

— Hugh Bicheno

Born to the Hudson River aristocracy of upstate New York, Roosevelt attended Groton, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School before marrying his distant cousin Eleanor Roosevelt in 1905. Following election to the New York State Senate (1911–13), he served as assistant secretary of the navy in Woodrow Wilson's administration (1913–21). A devotee of Alfred T. Mahan's writings, the young FDR championed “Big Navy” preparedness prior to American entry into World War I, instituted “Naval Plattsburg” battleship cruises to recruit civilian reservists, and advocated a system of universal military training. After a three‐month tour of the battle zones in 1918, he said that “the last thing this country should do is ever to send an army to Europe again.”

An unsuccessful candidate for vice president in 1920, Roosevelt overcame crippling polio to win the New York governorship in 1928 and attain the White House in 1932. Espousing isolationist views during his first two terms, FDR gave priority to New Deal reforms over foreign policy, accepted congressional revision of neutrality laws, and reacted hesitantly to Axis aggression in Asia and Europe. Notwithstanding his “Arsenal of Democracy” speech in December 1940, he had urged moderate rearmament until Adolf Hitler's conquest of France and supported the Selective Service Act of 1940 only after political opponents had introduced it. While promising to protect the hemisphere from war, he employed the neutrality patrol, the Destroyers‐for‐Bases Agreement, Lend‐Lease, and economic embargoes primarily to assist potential Allies (Britain, China, Soviet Union) in steps short of full belligerency. Emphasizing naval power and airpower instead of a second American Expeditionary Force, FDR proceeded to “wage war, but not declare it.”

After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 catapulted the United States into World War II, some isolationist historians later charged that Roosevelt had provoked the Japanese into firing the first shot so as to overcome American isolationism and thus ensure support, via the Pacific “back door,” for war against Japan's ally, Nazi Germany. Most scholars reject conspiracy and explain Pearl Harbor as the consequence of intelligence errors, missed clues, overconfidence, and plain bad luck. Nonetheless, Japan's attack and Hitler's subsequent declaration of war gave FDR the political leeway to implement a “Europe‐first” military strategy. Fearful that mounting American casualties in the Pacific would focus public resentment against Japan, the president reaffirmed Anglo‐American plans to defeat Hitler first. Against recommendations of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to concentrate forces in England for a cross‐Channel invasion by spring 1943, he accepted Winston S. Churchill's alternative plan, Operation Torch, for the North Africa Campaign in November 1942. This decision led logically to the invasion and conquest of Sicily and Italy in 1943 and effectively postponed the liberation of France (Operation Overlord) until 1944. Apart from Roosevelt's desire for Americans to fight Germans somewhere in 1942, British strategy predominated in the two years after Pearl Harbor because England had fully mobilized, whereas America had not, and any combined operation had to depend largely on British troops, shipping, and casualties.

Despite the European emphasis, Roosevelt did reinforce the Pacific theater after victories at the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway (1942) and oversaw a controversial two‐prong strategy in which the navy and Marines “leapfrogged” toward Tokyo across Micronesian atolls while U.S.‐Australian forces under Gen. Douglas MacArthur battled northward from New Guinea to the Philippines. FDR's expectation that China would figure decisively in defeating Japan and policing postwar Asia was undermined by Japan's conquest of Burma and internal bickering between Chinese Communists and Nationalists.

Because Roosevelt sought to win the war with minimal American casualties, the country never fully mobilized its population for military service. With no threat of invasion and the bulk of Axis forces engaged in Russia and China, the president gambled that “an air war plus the Russians” meant that ninety U.S. Army divisions would be sufficient for military and political goals.

Such calculations increased dependence on Soviet Russia. With the Red Army “killing more Axis personnel … than all other twenty‐five United Nations put together,” Roosevelt sent the Soviets $11 billion in Lend‐Lease supplies, made promises for an early second front, and used personal diplomacy at Teheran (November 1943) and Yalta (February 1945). “Unconditional Surrender” assured a suspicious Josef Stalin that there would be no separate peace with Hitler or his underlings. It also underscored FDR's belief that Germany deserved punishment for Hitler's crimes, including permanent partition, demilitarization, and dismantling of heavy industry. The president's postwar plans envisaged a disarmed, decentralized, and decolonized Europe initially policed by British and Soviet armies; U.S. forces would patrol the western hemisphere and replace Japanese power in the western Pacific. Because Red Army victories guaranteed Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe, FDR urged “open” spheres and free elections and hoped that increased contacts would make the Russians “less barbarian.”

Aiding the Soviets reflected Roosevelt's military advice. Despite “assured Russian military dominance” after the war, the joint chiefs invariably opposed “get tough” policies because of military necessity, including the need for Soviet help against Japan. According to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson in 1945, “in the big military matters the Soviet Government have kept their word.” Only after the end of the war did the predominant U.S. military view of the Soviet Union change from ally to adversary.

That the cooperation with the Kremlin had limits was shown in the Manhattan Project, the secret Anglo‐American effort to acquire an atomic weapon before the Germans. Despite Danish physicist Niels Bohr's plea in 1944 that the Russians be brought into the partnership to prevent a postwar nuclear arms race, Roosevelt and Churchill chose to maintain their monopoly, partly as a hedge against Russian misbehavior.

The booming U.S. economy (the gross national product had jumped from $90.5 billion in 1939 to $211.9 billion in 1945) also provided insurance against future uncertainties, as did FDR's support for new international institutions—the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund—designed to maintain peace and prosperity after the war.

The commander in chief died of a cerebral hemorrhage in April 1945, shortly after the Yalta Conference, on the eve of final victory.

[See also Lend‐Lease Act and Agreements; World War II: Military and Diplomatic Course.]

Bibliography

• Eric Larrabee, Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants and Their War, 1987.
• Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny, 1990.
• Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Homefront in World War II, 1994.
• Warren F. Kimball, Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War, 1997

(b. Hyde Park, N.Y., 30 Jan. 1882; d. Warm Springs, Ga., 12 Apr. 1945), president of the United States, 1933–1945. Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency was the longest and one of the most acclaimed in United States history. During his twelve years in office the New Deal helped to transform the structure of American government by expanding the scope and reach of federal power, by modernizing the federal bureaucracy, and by bringing into government many bright reformers who were committed to making government work to solve the social, political, and economic problems that confronted the country.

Roosevelt attended Columbia Law School for three years after his graduation from Harvard. Following admission to the New York bar, he briefly practiced in a Wall Street firm (1907–1910). He again was a member of a firm during the 1920s, but he served mainly as a name to attract clients, not as a practitioner. Roosevelt relished politics; he was a superb politician with a genius for public communication and building coalitions. He was a patrician who could trace his roots in the United States to the seventeenth century (Theodore Roosevelt was his fifth cousin), yet he was perhaps the most loved national politician of this century, easily winning four presidential elections—one, of record‐setting landslide proportions. At the age of twenty‐eight he was elected as a Democrat to the New York senate. He served in President Woodrow Wilson's cabinet as assistant secretary of the navy and lost as the Democratic vice presidential candidate in James Cox's defeat by Warren G. Harding in 1920. FDR twice won election as governor of New York, and in 1932 he secured the Democratic nomination for president. In his convincing electoral triumph over President Herbert Hoover, he forged a coalition of Progressives, northern urban liberals, conservative southern Democrats, labor unions, farmers, middle‐ and lower‐class white ethnic groups, and African‐Americans that survived almost intact for fifty years.

Roosevelt held to no fixed political vision. Rather, he had a commitment to using the federal government to accomplish tasks that he and his advisers believed were necessary to move America forward—first out of the Great Depression, and then toward victory over Axis powers in World War II. During the first hundred days (the “first New Deal”), he launched federal efforts to reform banking laws and relieve the plight of farmers and later to regulate securities. The centerpiece of his economic recovery measure was the National Recovery Administration, which was a cooperative effort between business, labor, and government. After the Supreme Court struck down the NRA, and after his overwhelming electoral victory in 1936 (which also created enormous Democratic margins in Congress), FDR switched from cooperation to confrontation with business and the wealthy. His “second New Deal” included the passage of the Wagner Act (guaranteeing unions the right to organize and bargain collectively), a large increase in the tax rate of the most wealthy, the Social Security Act, further banking reform, and the most massive public works program undertaken in American history. As he lost support for his more radical reform efforts, and as World War II began, he switched back to the more cooperative politics of the first New Deal.

Unlike another lawyer‐president, William Howard Taft, FDR had little reverence for the traditions of the Supreme Court as an institution, nor did he worship constitutional precedents. He perceived the Constitution as a document that must change to accommodate modern economic and social conditions of the country. These views led Roosevelt to the most strident and direct clash between the executive branch and the judiciary in the twentieth century: the court‐packing struggle of 1937.

Fearing that the Supreme Court—dominated in 1936–1937 by its conservative bloc joined by Justice Owen Roberts and often by Chief Justice Charles Evan Hughes—would stymie New Deal efforts to cope with the Depression, FDR proposed a bill that would permit him to name additional justices to the Court and judges to the lower federal courts equal in number to jurists with ten years' service who had attained the age of seventy and refused to retire. The proposal encountered immediate and powerful opposition. Meanwhile, the Court handed down its decision in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937), which by a 5‐to‐4 margin upheld a state minimum‐wage law for women and minors, thus signaling a reversal of its hostility to federal and state legislation that regulated the economy. When Justice Willis Van Devanter announced his retirement, it became apparent that the president would soon be able to nominate enough justices to assure the permanence of this turn‐around. When the Senate Judiciary Committee reported the bill out negatively, FDR lost the legislative battle but won the war for the soul of the Supreme Court.

Roosevelt named nine justices to the court, second only to the number of justices appointed by George Washington. The only seat on the Court not filled by FDR at the time of his death was that of Owen Roberts. He nominated the populist senator Hugo Black to replace Willis Van Devanter. Solicitor General Stanley Reed, who had argued many important agency cases, filled the vacancy caused by George Sutherland's resignation. Felix Frankfurter, Harvard Law School professor and a crucial member of FDR's brain trust, was named to Benjamin N. Cardozo's seat. Former Yale Law School professor and chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, William O. Douglas, succeeded Louis D. Brandeis. Attorney General Frank Murphy replaced Pierce Butler, and his replacement as attorney general, Robert H. Jackson, filled Harlan F. Stone's seat when Stone replaced Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes. FDR named Senator James Byrnes to James McReynolds' seat. Byrnes resigned after only one year to take a place in the president's war cabinet and was replaced by Wiley Rutledge, a federal appellate judge who had supported court packing while dean of the University of Iowa law school. Eight of the nine men named had directly served in the New Deal, and Rutledge in writings before and on the bench had shown himself to be supportive of New Deal measures. All were selected in large part because they agreed with the issues that mattered most to FDR; that is, they were certain to take an expansive view of the power of Congress to regulate the economic life of the nation under the Interstate Commerce Clause of the Constitution. After 1938 no New Deal legislation was declared unconstitutional, and the doctrine of substantive due process rapidly withered in areas of economic regulation. FDR had no integrated constitutional philosophy that his appointees fit. They were diverse, and as the issues before the Court shifted from the scope of federal regulatory power to issues of social justice and the protection of civil rights and civil liberties in an expanded governmental state, they differed, often quite sharply, about the nature of government and judicial power.

Franklin Roosevelt had the most profound influence on the Supreme Court of any president in the twentieth century, partly because of the longevity of the justices he appointed; Douglas served thirty‐six years, Black thirty‐three years, Frankfurter twenty‐three years, and Reed nineteen years. Five of the justices deciding the most famous twentieth‐century case, Brown v. Board of Education (1954), were Roosevelt appointees. Additionally, other justices appointed later were in some measure New Dealers. Justice Abe Fortas had served in the Roosevelt administration, and others such as Justices Arthur Goldberg, William Brennan, and Thurgood Marshall were profoundly influenced by the New Deal. Perhaps Roosevelt's most enduring legacy is that the issues with which the Supreme Court dealt during the last half of the twentieth century were framed and shaped by the transformation of federal power and the federal government that FDR had created.

See also Court‐Packing Plan; History of the Court: The Depression and the Rise of Legal Liberalism; New Deal.

Bibliography

• William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal 1932–1940 (1963).
• Paul L. Murphy, The Constitution in Crisis Times, 1918–1969 (1972)

— Rayman L. Solomon

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1882-1945) 32nd president of the United States. Born to a wealthy upstate New York family, Roosevelt was raised to a life of privilege. After graduating from Harvard and attending Columbia Law School, he practiced law and ran successfully for the state Senate in 1910. Although he won reelection easily in 1912, he left Albany in 1913 to become assistant secretary of the navy, in which position he advocated preparedness for World War I. He left the navy post in 1920 to make an unsuccessful run for the vice presidency, with James M. Cox at the head of the ticket. A crippling attack of polio in 1921 led him to spend the next several years searching in vain for some treatment that would enable him to regain use of his legs. He returned to public life in 1928 with a successful run for the governorship of New York, where he developed modest programs to help combat the devastation of the Depression and began to call for federal efforts to combat the economic ruin facing the country. In 1932, having won a huge reelection victory in 1930, he took the Democratic nomination for president on the fourth ballot, pledging “a New Deal” for the country. He defeated Herbert Hoover by a comfortable margin and immediately began a remarkable campaign to rebuild the U.S. economy by creating numerous federal agencies that would offer employment opportunities to those out of work while providing economic support to those who could not work. These and other programs enjoyed varying degrees of success, but they began to change the nation's despairing mood. A second round of legislative initiatives, in 1935, dubbed the “Second New Deal, ” produced profound and sometimes permanent changes in the government's role in America's social patterns. As World War II threatened the world's security, he also gradually moved the nation from its postwar isolationism to more active support of Great Britain, in particular, winning congressional approval for Lend-Lease in 1940, which allowed him to provide Britain with arms without receiving payment for them; in 1941 he and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, in which they condemned fascism and called for national self-determination. Later that year, he extended Lend-Lease to cover Russia. After Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, on December 7, 1941, which Roosevelt called “a date which will live in infamy, ” the United States faced a two-front war; Roosevelt decided to concentrate on the war in Europe first. By 1943, the tide of the war seemed to have finally turned. In a series of summit meetings, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Josef Stalin negotiated plans for a long-planned Allied invasion of France's channel coast; the invasion was finally launched on June 6, 1944, D-Day. Roosevelt easily won reelection to a fourth term in 1944; at a final summit, at Yalta, in the Crimea, in January 1945, he appeared frail and ill but vigorously participated in planning for a postwar Europe, although a real accord was reached only on division of Germany. He died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, Georgia, in April.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), thirty-second president of the United States, led the nation out of the Great Depression and later into World War II. Before he died, he cleared the way for peace, including establishment of the United Nations.

Franklin Roosevelt was born on Jan. 30, 1882, of his father's second marriage, to Sara Delano, the daughter of a prominent family. The Roosevelts had been moderately wealthy for many generations. Merchants and financiers, they had often been prominent in the civic affairs of New York. When Franklin was born, his father was 51 years old and semiretired from a railroad presidency, and his mother was 28. Franklin was often in the care of governesses and tutors, until at the age of 14 he went to Groton School. Here he received a solid classical, historical, and mathematical training and was moderately good at his studies. His earnest attempts at athletics were mostly defeated because of his tall, ungainly frame.

Roosevelt wanted to go to Annapolis, but his parents insisted on preparation for the position natural for the scion of the Delano and Roosevelt families, so he entered Harvard University. He was a reasonably good student and found a substitute for athletics in reporting for the Harvard newspaper, of which he finally became editor. While seeming to be a Cambridge socialite, he spent an extra year studying public affairs. He also met and determined to marry his cousin, Eleanor, to his mother's annoyance. Eleanor was the daughter of Elliott Roosevelt, a weak member of the family who had died early. Raised by relatives, she received a lady's education but little affection. She was shy and retiring, but Franklin found her warm, vibrant, and responsive.

Despite his mother's opposition, they were married in 1905, and Franklin entered Columbia University Law School. He prepared for the bar examinations and without taking a degree became a lawyer and entered a clerkship in the Wall Street firm of Carter, Ledyard and Milburn. He took his duties lightly, however, and it was later recalled that he had remarked to fellow clerks that he meant somehow to enter politics and finally to become president. There was never any doubt of his ambition.

Roosevelt's chance came in 1910. He accepted the Democratic nomination for the New York Senate and was elected. Opportunity for further notice came quickly. Although his backing had come from Democrats affiliated with New York City's notorious Tammany Hall, he joined a group of upstate legislators who were setting out to oppose the election of Tammany's choice for U.S. senator. The rebels were successful in forcing acceptance of another candidate.

Much of Roosevelt's wide publicity from this struggle was managed by Albany reporter Louis McHenry Howe, who had taken to the young politician and set out to further his career. (This dedication lasted until Roosevelt was safely in the White House.) The Tammany fight made Roosevelt famous in New York, but it also won him the enmity of Tammany. Still, he was reelected in 1912. That year Woodrow Wilson was elected president; Roosevelt had been a campaign worker, and his efforts had been noticed by prominent party elder Josephus Daniels. When Daniels became secretary of the Navy in Wilson's Cabinet, he persuaded Wilson to offer Roosevelt the assistant secretaryship.

Assistant Secretary of the Navy

As assistant secretary, Roosevelt began an experience that substituted for the naval career he had hoped for as a boy. Before long he became restless, however, and tried to capture the Democratic nomination for U.S. senator from New York. Wilson and Daniels were displeased. Daniels forgave him, but Wilson never afterward really trusted the brash young man. This distrust was heightened later by Roosevelt's departure from the administration's policy of neutrality in the years preceding World War I. Roosevelt openly favored intervention, agitated for naval expansion, and was known to be rather scornful of Daniels, who kept the Navy under close political discipline.

America soon entered the war, however, and Roosevelt could work for a cause he believed in. At that time there was only one assistant secretary, and he had extensive responsibilities. Howe had come to Washington with him and had become his indispensable guardian and helper. Together their management of the department was creditable.

Though Roosevelt tried several times to leave his civilian post to join the fighting forces, he was persuaded to remain. When the war came to an end and Wilson was stricken during his fight for ratification of the Versailles Treaty, there was an obvious revulsion throughout the United States from the disappointing settlements of the war. It seemed to many that the effort to make the world safe for democracy had resulted in making the world safe for the old empires.

The Allied leaders had given in to Wilson's insistence on the creation of the League of Nations only to serve their real interest in extending their territories and in imposing reparations on Germany. These reparations were so large that they could never be paid; consequently the enormous debts the Allies owed to the United States would never be paid either. The American armies had saved Europe and the Europeans were ungrateful. Resentment and disillusion were widespread.

The Republican party had the advantage of not having been responsible for these foreign entanglements. In 1920 they nominated Warren G. Harding, a conservative senator, as their presidential candidate. The Democrats nominated Governor James Cox of Ohio, who had had no visible part in the Wilson administration; the vice-presidential candidate was Roosevelt.

It was a despairing campaign; but in one respect it was a beginning rather than an ending for Roosevelt. He made a much more noticeable campaign effort than the presidential candidate. He covered the nation by special trains, speaking many times a day, often from back platforms, and getting acquainted with local leaders everywhere. He had learned the professional politician's breeziness, was able to absorb useful information, and had an infallible memory for names and faces. The defeat was decisive; but Roosevelt emerged as the most representative Democrat.

Victim of Poliomyelitis

Roosevelt retreated to a law connection in New York's financial district again and a position with a fidelity and deposit company. But in the summer of 1921, vacationing in Canada, he became mysteriously ill. His disease, polio-myelitis, was not immediately diagnosed. He was almost totally paralyzed, however, and had to be moved to New York for treatment. This was managed with such secrecy that for a long time the seriousness of his condition was not publicized. In fact, he would never recover the use of his legs, a disability that seemed to end his political career. His mother, typically, demanded that he return to Hyde Park and give up the political activities she had always deplored. He could now become a country gentleman. But Eleanor, joined by Howe, set out to renew his ambition.

Roosevelt's struggle during the convalescence of the next few years was agonizing and continually disappointing. Not much was known then about rehabilitation, and he resorted to exhausting courses of calisthenics to reactivate his atrophied muscles. In 1923 he tried the warm mineral waters of Warm Springs, Ga., where exercise was easier. He was so optimistic that he wrote friends that he had begun to feel movement in his toes. It was, of course, an illusion.

Roosevelt invested a good part of his remaining fortune in the place. It soon became a resort for those with similar ailments. The facilities were overwhelmed, but gradually an institution was built up, and the medical staff began to have more realistic knowledge of aftereffects. There were no cures; but lives could be made much more tolerable. Meanwhile Roosevelt, realizing that cures were impossible, turned to the encouragement of prevention. (Ultimately, an effective vaccine was found.)

New York Governor

While at Warm Springs in 1928, Roosevelt was called to political duty again, this time by Al Smith, whom he had put in nomination at the Democratic conventions of 1924 and 1928. Almost at once, however, it became clear that Smith could not win the election. He felt, however, that Roosevelt, as candidate for governor, would help to win New York. Roosevelt resisted. He was now a likely presidential candidate in a later, more favorable year for the Democrats; and if he lost the race for the governorship, he would be finished. But the New Yorkers insisted, and he ran and was narrowly elected.

Roosevelt began the 4 years of his New York governorship that were preliminary to his presidency, and since he was reelected 2 years later, it was inevitable that he should be the candidate in 1932. Since 1929 the nation had been sunk in the worst depression of its history, and Herbert Hoover's Republican administration had failed to find a way to recovery. This made it a favorable year for the Democrats.

First Term as President

It would be more true to say that Hoover in 1932 lost than that Roosevelt won. At any rate, Roosevelt came to the presidency with a dangerous economic crisis at its height. Industry was paralyzed, and unemployment afflicted some 30 percent of the work force. Roosevelt had promised that something would be done, but what that would be he had not specified.

Roosevelt began providing relief on a large scale by giving work to the unemployed and by approving a device for bringing increased income to farmers, who were in even worse straits than city workers. Also, he devalued the currency and enabled debtors to discharge debts that had long been frozen. Closed banks all over the country were assisted to reopen, and gradually the crisis was overcome.

In 1934 Roosevelt proposed a comprehensive social security system that, he hoped, would make another such depression impossible. Citizens would never be without at least minimum incomes again. Incidentally, these citizens became devoted supporters of the President who had given them this hope. So in spite of the conservatives who opposed the measures he collectively called the New Deal, he became so popular that he won reelection in 1936 by an unprecedented majority.

Second and Third Terms

Roosevelt's second term began with a struggle between himself and the Supreme Court. The justices had held certain of his New Deal devices to be unconstitutional. In retaliation he proposed to add new justices who would be more amenable. Many even in his own party opposed him in this attempt to pack the Court, and Congress defeated it. After this there ensued the familiar stalemate between an innovative president and a reluctant Congress.

Nevertheless in 1940 Roosevelt determined to break with tradition and run for a third term. His reasons were partly that his reforms were far from finished, but more importantly that he was now certain of Adolf Hitler's intention to subdue Europe and go on to further conquests. The immense productivity and organizational ability of the Germans would be at his disposal. Europe would be defeated unless the United States came to its support.

The presidential campaign of 1940 was the climax of Roosevelt's plea that Americans set themselves against the Nazi threat. He had sought to prepare the way in numerous speeches but had had a most disappointing response. There was a vivid recollection of the disillusion after World War I, and a good many Americans were inclined to support the Germans rather than the Allied Powers. So strong was American reluctance to be involved in another world war that in the last speeches of this campaign Roosevelt practically promised that young Americans would never be sent abroad to fight. Luckily his opponent, Republican Wendell Willkie, also favored support for the Allies. The campaign, won by a narrow majority, gave Roosevelt no mandate for intervention.

Roosevelt was not far into his third term, however, when the decision to enter the war was made for him by the Japanese, whose attack on Pearl Harbor caused serious losses to American forces there. Almost at once the White House became headquarters for those who controlled the strategy of what was now World War II. Winston Churchill came immediately and practically took up residence, bringing a British staff. Together the leaders agreed that Germany and Italy must have first attention. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, commander in the Pacific, was ordered to retreat from the Philippines to Australia, something he was bitterly reluctant to do. But Roosevelt firmly believed that the first problem was to help the British, and then, when Hitler turned East, to somehow get arms to the Soviets. The Japanese could be taken care of when Europe was safe.

Hitler's grand strategy was to subdue the Soviet Union, conquer North Africa, and link up with the Japanese, who were advancing rapidly across the Eastern countries. Roosevelt wanted an early crossing of the English Channel to retake France and to force Hitler to fight on two fronts. Churchill, mindful of the fearful British losses in World War I, instead wanted to attack the underbelly of Europe, cut Hitler's lines to the East, and shut him off from Africa. The invasion of Europe was postponed because it became clear that elaborate preparation was necessary. But Allied troops were sent into Africa, with Gen. Dwight Eisenhower in command, to attack Field Marshal Erwin Rommel from the rear. Eventually an Allied crossing to Sicily and a slow, costly march up the Italian peninsula, correlated with the attack across the English Channel, forced the Italian collapse and the German surrender.

Meanwhile MacArthur was belatedly given the support he needed for a brilliant island-hopping campaign that drove the Japanese back, destroyed their fleet, and endangered their home island. After the German surrender, the Pacific war was brought to an end by the American atomic bomb explosion over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By this time Roosevelt was dead. He had not participated in that doubtful decision; but he had been, with Churchill, in active command during the war until then.

Roosevelt had gone to Warm Springs early in 1945, completely exhausted. He had recently returned from a conference of Allied leaders at Yalta, where he had forced acceptance of his scheme for a United Nations and made arrangements for the Soviet Union to assist in the final subjugation of Japan. The strain was visible as he made his report to the nation.

At Warm Springs he prepared the address to be used at San Francisco, where the meeting to ratify agreements concerning the United Nations was to be held; but he found himself unable to enjoy the pine woods and the gushing waters. He sat wan and frail in his small cottage, getting through only such work as had to be done. He finished signing papers on the morning of April 12, 1945. Within hours, he suffered the massive cerebral hemorrhage that killed him.

A special train carried Roosevelt's body to Washington, and there he lay in the White House until he was taken to Hyde Park and buried in the hedged garden he himself had prepared. His grave is marked by a plain marble slab, and his wife is buried beside him. He had given the estate to the nation, and it is now a shrine much visited by those who recall or have heard how great a man he was for his time.

Further Reading

Samuel I. Rosenman, ed., The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1938-1950), includes selected messages to Congress, speeches, executive orders, and transcripts from press conferences. There is also a collection of Roosevelt's letters edited by Elliott Roosevelt, F. D. R.: His Personal Letters (4 vols., 1947-1950). Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember (1949), is a frank account by Roosevelt's wife. Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (1946), and Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (1952), personal accounts, are helpful in assessing Roosevelt's character and work methods.

The only full biography of Roosevelt is Rexford G. Tugwell, The Democratic Roosevelt (1957). Frank B. Freidel's biography, Franklin D. Roosevelt (3 vols., 1952-1956), was never completed. Rexford G. Tugwell's briefer F. D. R.: Architect of an Era (1967) studies the man and his work, and his The Brains Trust (1968) tells the part played in Roosevelt's presidency by a group of helpers, mostly from Columbia University. The presidential elections involving Roosevelt are covered in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections (4 vols., 1971). James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (1956), ranks Roosevelt among the great presidents. Basil Rauch, Roosevelt: From Munich to Pearl Harbor, a Study in the Creation of a Foreign Policy (1950), is a detailed, accurate history of events during this period. Written by an Albany newspaper correspondent when Roosevelt was governor, Ernest K. Lindley, The Roosevelt Revolution: First Phase (1933), helped establish Roosevelt as a progressive leader. An authoritative and readable history of Roosevelt's era is provided in the two volumes by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The New Deal in Action, 1933-1939 (1940) and The Crisis of the Old Order (1957). Another account of the period is Basil Rauch, The History of the New Deal, 1933-1938 (1944).

• Born: Jan. 30, 1882, Hyde Park, N.Y.
• Political party: Democrat
• Education: Harvard College, A.B., 1903; Columbia University Law School, 1904–7
• Military service: none
• Previous government service: New York Senate, 1911–13; assistant secretary of the navy, 1913–20; governor of New York, 1929–33
• Elected President, 1932; served, 1933–45
• Died: Apr. 12, 1945, Warm Springs, Ga.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was President during the Great Depression and World War II. He demonstrated the power of the modern Presidency to restore public confidence and win speedy passage of recovery legislation. In spite of considerable isolationist sentiment in Congress, he provided aid to Great Britain and the Soviet Union that prevented their defeat at the hands of Adolf Hitler, and after U.S. entry into World War II he led the Allied coalition to victory over Germany. Roosevelt created the New Deal coalition within the Democratic party, which dominated national politics through the 1960s.

Roosevelt was descended from a wealthy family of Dutch settlers and was a fifth cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt. He was educated by private tutors, then at the elite Groton School and at Harvard College, where he studied history and became editor of the student newspaper, the Harvard Crimson. He studied law at Columbia University but did not graduate. He married his fifth cousin Eleanor Roosevelt, passed the bar, and began to practice law in New York City in 1908.

In 1910 Roosevelt won election to the state senate from rural Duchess County (a seat that no Democrat had won since the Civil War). He was appointed assistant secretary of the navy in 1913 by Woodrow Wilson and served until 1920. That year he won the Democratic Vice Presidential nomination and campaigned strenuously for the League of Nations and Treaty of Versailles, but he was defeated. The following year, while vacationing at his family retreat on Campobello Island in Canada, he came down with polio. For the rest of his life he was paralyzed below the waist, though he went through arduous rehabilitation at a spa in Warm Springs, Georgia. In 1927 Roosevelt founded the Warm Springs Foundation to treat other victims of polio.

Although he used a wheelchair and was weighed down with heavy leg braces, Roosevelt remained an important figure in New York Democratic politics. He attended his party's national conventions in 1924 and 1928, both times giving nominating speeches for the “Happy Warrior,” Al Smith. Although Smith was crushed in 1928, in part because he was a Roman Catholic, Roosevelt spoke out against religious intolerance and won the governorship of New York.

As governor, Roosevelt lowered taxes and electric rates and created a state power authority, state parks, and state highways. In 1930, in the midst of the depression, he created the first state public relief agency and the first system of unemployment insurance. He was reelected by the greatest landslide ever received by a New York gubernatorial candidate.

In 1932 Roosevelt won the Democratic nomination for President, becoming the first person ever to win a Presidential nomination after being defeated in a Vice Presidential election. He flew to Chicago and became the first Presidential nominee in U.S. history to deliver his acceptance speech in person. “I pledge you, I pledge myself,” he told the delegates, “to a New Deal for the American people.” He defeated Herbert Hoover by a landslide. Riding his political coattails, the Democrats increased their majorities in the House and Senate.

Roosevelt's 1932 election and the three that followed brought into power the New Deal coalition: white Protestant Southerners, Northern Jews and Catholics, blacks, labor union members, and small farmers. That coalition would convert the Democrats into the majority party, dominate the Presidential elections (with only two exceptions) through the 1960s, and control most of the Congresses into the 1990s.

Roosevelt continued Woodrow Wilson's transformation of the Democratic party from its Jeffersonian and Jacksonian traditions of states' rights and limited governmental regulation to an emphasis on national economic regulation and social welfare programs for the poor, the unemployed, the sick, and the elderly.

As Roosevelt took his oath of office, there were millions unemployed, farmers and home owners had seen their land or homes foreclosed, industrial production was sinking, and thousands of banks had been closed by state governors to prevent a run on their deposits. “Let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself,” Roosevelt told the American people in his inaugural address, “nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance.” He took measures to end that fear. He declared a bank holiday to end the run on deposits, then got Congress to pass an emergency banking bill to regulate banks. Only those that were declared solvent were allowed to reopen. By executive order he took the nation off the gold standard to protect dwindling Trea-sury reserves from people who wanted to exchange dollars for gold, which they thought would be more valuable in hard times. The bank panic was over.

Roosevelt began his administration with the “hundred days” of emergency legislation. Banking deposits were guaranteed by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, restoring depositor confidence. An Economy Act permitted the President to cut federal employees' salaries and veterans' pensions. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave states funds to provide public works jobs to the unemployed, and the Civilian Conservation Corps gave work to young people. The Home Owners Loan Corporation helped home owners avoid foreclosures. The Farm Credit Administration provided funds for farmers in the growing season; the Farm Mortgage Refinancing Act provided them with loans to make mortgage payments; and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration helped stabilize farm prices by limiting production and establishing marketing quotas. The National Industrial Recovery Act allowed industrial producers to stabilize prices and restore production. The Tennessee Valley Authority built 30 dams that provided cheap power for farms and industry and better agricultural techniques to parts of seven states in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. The Works Progress Administration funded artists and writers and photographers to undertake public cultural projects such as painting murals in government buildings.

Roosevelt continued his recovery program by creating more New Deal agencies, such as the Securities and Exchange Commission to regulate financial markets, the Federal Communications Commission to regulate telephone and radio (and later television), and the National Industrial Relations Board to regulate labor-management relations. He got the national government involved in public housing, rural electrification, public service jobs, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.

Although Roosevelt did not lift the nation out of the depression, his active and energetic leadership and his ability to restore public confidence helped alleviate the worst suffering. In 1936 he won a landslide victory against Republican Alf Landon, winning a greater percentage of the popular vote than in 1932.

In Roosevelt's second inaugural address he pledged to relieve the poverty of “one third of a nation ill-housed, ill-clad, ill-nourished.” To do so, he moved against the Supreme Court, which had declared several recovery laws unconstitutional. Roosevelt proposed to “pack” the court with an additional appointee for every justice over the age of 70—giving him six new appointments. Members of Congress, even those from his own party, were reluctant to see Roosevelt dominate the court.

Roosevelt's court-packing plan was defeated in Congress in 1937. He would later appoint enough justices to secure a firm liberal majority on the court. But after the court-packing fight, a conservative coalition of Southern Democrats and Republicans in Congress blocked most of Roosevelt's New Deal proposals.

Roosevelt maintained strict neutrality in European affairs until the summer of 1939. But after a trip to the United States by the British king and queen, he recommended that Congress amend the neutrality laws to allow nations that might go to war with the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) the right to buy supplies from the United States. After Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Roosevelt initiated a “cash and carry” policy to arm the British. The British paid cash and carried the goods away in their own ships.

In the summer of 1940 Roosevelt began a national preparedness program, had Congress give him authority to draft troops, and raised the ceiling on the national debt. In September, using an executive order to bypass the Senate's advice and consent power over treaties, Roosevelt concluded a “destroyer deal” with Great Britain: in return for providing the British with 50 old destroyers useful for submarine warfare, the United States received the use of British military bases in the Caribbean.

Because of the ominous international situation, Roosevelt broke with tradition and accepted a unanimous third nomination for President. He promised the American people, “Your sons will not fight in a foreign war,” and he defeated Republican Wendell Willkie. In his State of the Union address in 1941, he put forth his vision of a postwar world when he enunciated the Four Freedoms: freedom of speech and expression; freedom of every person to worship God in his own way; freedom from want; and freedom from fear.

In 1941 Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act, which provided military assistance to Great Britain and the Soviet Union. The United States, in the President's words, became the “arsenal of democracy” against the Axis dictatorships. Although Roosevelt gave “shoot on sight” orders to the navy against German submarines in the North Atlantic in 1941, landed U.S. troops in Iceland, closed Italian and German consulates, and froze Japanese assets in the United States, he did not ask Congress for a declaration of war because most Americans opposed it. In August 1941 Roosevelt met with British prime minister Winston Churchill to draft the Atlantic Charter, an eight-point plan on common principles of a democratic postwar world. The following month the U.S. Navy began to convoy British merchant ships carrying lend-lease supplies.

The Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor (in the Hawaiian Islands), on the Philippines, and on Guam, which all took place on December 7, 1941, led Roosevelt to ask Congress to declare war not only on Japan but on Germany and Italy as well. Early in 1942 a coalition of 26 nations subscribed to the Atlantic Charter. Following Roosevelt's suggestions, these nations called themselves the United Nations. In 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill called for an unconditional Axis surrender.

In June 1944 Allied troops under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower launched the Normandy invasion in France. With the war going successfully, Roosevelt received a fourth Democratic nomination and defeated Republican challenger Thomas E. Dewey.

In February 1945 Roosevelt traveled to Yalta in the Soviet Union to discuss plans for peace with Churchill and Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. Stalin and Churchill discussed spheres of influence for their nations, parts of Europe and the Middle East where they would have dominant political and economic influence. Roosevelt, in poor health, was not in a position to argue forcefully against them and in favor of the U.S. position of open markets and equal access for all the great powers. This led some critics to claim that Roosevelt had “sold out” the nations of eastern Europe to Stalin. While resting at Warm Springs, Georgia, in preparation for the San Francisco conference that was to create the United Nations, Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945.

See also Brains Trust; Court-Packing Plan

Sources

• James MacGregor Burns, The Lion and the Fox (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1956).
• Robert Dallek, Franklin Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
• Kenneth Sydney Davis, FDR: Into the Storm, 1937–1940: A History (New York: Random House, 1993).
• William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (New York: Harper & Row, 1963)

(1882-1945), thirty-second president of the United States. Born in Hyde Park, New York, the only child in an affluent patrician family, Roosevelt was educated at such citadels of the northeastern establishment as Groton School, Harvard College, class of '04, and Columbia Law School. Law practice bored him, and he early embraced a career in politics, entering with relish into the reform tumult of the Progressive Era.

Two influences shaping his public career were his distant kinsman Theodore Roosevelt, whose niece Eleanor he married in 1905, and Woodrow Wilson, whom he served as assistant secretary of the navy during the First World War. In 1920 Roosevelt was the Democratic candidate for vice president in a Republican year. Struck down by poliomyelitis in 1921, he never recovered the use of his legs, though with braces and cane, buoyant determination, and the cooperation of the press, he managed in subsequent years to convey the illusion of mobility. Encouraged by his wife, he returned to politics and in 1928 was elected governor of New York.

In 1932, at the bottom of the Great Depression, Roosevelt defeated Herbert Hoover in the presidential election. A quarter of the labor force was out of work, the economy in collapse, and the nation in despair. Confronted by an emergency to which no one knew the answer, Roosevelt saw the national government as the instrument of the general welfare and experiment as the method of democracy. Theodore Roosevelt's New Nationalism, with its emphasis on federal regulation of big business, was reborn in Franklin Roosevelt's first term, and Wilson's New Freedom, with its emphasis on antitrust policy, reemerged in his second term.

The New Deal, though sometimes contradictory in detail and uneven in impact, restored national morale and remolded the landscape of American life. In particular, it established the responsibility of government to maintain a high level of economic activity, to provide for the unemployed and the elderly, to guarantee workers unions of their own choosing, to prohibit antisocial business practices, to protect natural resources, and to develop the Tennessee Valley and other undeveloped regions.

Though some, especially in the business community, hated "that man in the White House" as a "traitor to his class," the voters returned him to office by a landslide in 1936. An ill-advised effort in 1937 to overcome judicial vetoes of New Deal legislation by enlarging the Supreme Court broke his political stride, and the forward thrust of the New Deal had come to an end by 1938.

After a sharp recession in 1937, Roosevelt turned to Keynesian deficit spending policies to revive the economy. Despite his reputation as a profligate spender, his largest peacetime deficit--$3.5 billion in 1936--was insufficient as economic stimulus. Not until war overcame business opposition to government spending were deficits large enough to soak up unemployment, thereby ending the depression and proving the case for compensatory fiscal policy.

In foreign policy Roosevelt combined Theodore Roosevelt's balance-of-power realism with Wilson's idealistic vision of an organized common peace. Concerned from an early point by German and Japanese aggression, he began a long campaign to awaken Americans from isolationist slumber. When war broke out in 1939, he made the United States, over vociferous opposition, the "arsenal of democracy." International crisis led to his unprecedented reelection to third and fourth terms.

After Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt proved a highly effective commander in chief. He also, through the Four Freedoms, the Atlantic Charter, the Bretton Woods arrangements, and the United Nations, prepared the United States for leadership of the postwar world. Agreements made with Joseph Stalin at Yalta provoked subsequent criticism; but it is to be noted that Stalin had to break the agreements to achieve his purposes.

Roosevelt died of a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945. As controversy faded after his death, he came to be seen as a gallant, joyous, and eloquent, if sometimes crafty and devious, president who led the nation greatly through two of its deepest crises--the Great Depression and the Second World War--and reshaped its domestic polity, its role in the international order, and the office of the presidency itself.

Bibliography:

James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (1956) and The Soldier of Freedom (1970); Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (1990); Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins (1948).

Author:

Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.

See also Democratic Party; Elections: 1920 , 1932 , 1936 , 1940 , 1944; Roosevelt, Eleanor. For events during Roosevelt's administration, see Atlantic Charter; Court-Packing Plan; Depressions; Expansion, Continental and Overseas; Four Freedoms; G.I. Bill; Good Neighbor Policy; Government and the Economy; Isolationism; Labor; Lend-Lease Act; Manhattan Project; Marches on Washington: 1941, 1963; Neutrality Acts; New Deal; Pearl Harbor, Attack on; Progressivism; Scottsboro Case; Sit-Down Strikes; Welfare and Public Relief; World War II; Yalta Conference.

Early Life

Through both his father, James Roosevelt, and his mother, Sara Delano Roosevelt, he came of old, wealthy families. After studying at Groton, Harvard (B.A., 1904), and Columbia Univ. school of law, he began a career as a lawyer. In 1905 he married a distant cousin, a niece of Theodore Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt. They had five children: Anna Eleanor, James, Elliott, Franklin D., Jr., and John A. Both Franklin D., Jr., and James served terms in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Political Start

His political career began when he was elected (1910) to the New York state senate. He became the leader of a group of insurgent Democrats who prevented the Tammany candidate, William F. Sheehan, from being chosen for the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt allied himself firmly with reform elements in the party by his vigorous campaign for Woodrow Wilson in the election of 1912. Appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he served in that position from 1913 to 1920 and acquired a reputation as an able administrator. In 1920 he ran as vice presidential nominee with James M. Cox on the Democratic ticket that lost overwhelmingly to Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge.

Affliction and Return to Politics

The following summer, while vacationing on Campobello Island, N.B., Roosevelt was stricken with poliomyelitis. He was paralyzed from the waist down, but by unremitting effort he eventually recovered partial use of his legs. Although crippled to the end of his life, his vigor reasserted itself. He found the waters at Warm Springs, Ga., beneficial, and there he later established a foundation to help other victims of poliomyelitis. Encouraged by his wife and others, he had retained his interest in life and politics and was active in support of the candidacy of Alfred E. Smith in the Democratic conventions of 1924 and 1928.

Persuaded by Smith, Roosevelt ran for the governorship of New York and was elected (1928) by a small plurality despite the defeat of the Democratic ticket nationally. Roosevelt's program of state action for general welfare included a farm-relief plan, a state power authority, regulation of public utilities, and old-age pensions. Roosevelt was reelected governor in 1930, and, to deal with the growing problems of the economic depression, he in 1932 surrounded himself with a small group of intellectuals (later called the Brain Trust) as well as with other experts in many fields. Although his program showed him to be the most vigorous of the governors working for recovery, the problems still remained.

Presidency

New Deal

In July, 1932, Roosevelt was chosen by the Democratic party as its presidential candidate to run against the Republican incumbent, Herbert C. Hoover. In November, Roosevelt was overwhelmingly elected President. He came to the White House at the height of crisis-the economic structure of the country was tottering, and fear and despair hung over the nation. Roosevelt's inaugural address held words of hope and vigor to reassure the troubled country-"Let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself"-and at the same time to prepare it for a prompt and unprecedented emergency program-"This Nation asks for action, and action now. We must act and act quickly." He did act quickly. During the famous "Hundred Days" (Mar.-June, 1933), the administration rushed through Congress a flood of antidepression measures.

Finance and banking were regulated by new laws that loosened credit and insured deposits; the United States went off the gold standard; and a series of government agencies-most notably the National Recovery Administration, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, and the Public Works Administration-were set up to reorganize industry and agriculture under controls and to revive the economy by a vast expenditure of public funds. Later on came more reform legislation and new government agencies. The Securities and Exchange Commission was set up (1934) to regulate banks and stock exchanges. The Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects Administration) was intended to offer immediate work programs for the unemployed, while the legislation for social security was a long-range plan for the future protection of the worker in unemployment, sickness, and old age. The government also took a direct role in developing the natural resources of the country with the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Rural Electrification Administration (1935).

The vast, many-faceted program of the New Deal was fashioned with the help of many advisers. Some of the Brain Trust had accompanied Roosevelt to Washington, and counselors, such as Raymond Moley, Rexford Guy Tugwell, and Adolf A. Berle, Jr., were important advisers in the early years, as were some members of the cabinet, including Henry A. Wallace, Harold L. Ickes, Frances Perkins, Cordell Hull, and James A. Farley. Among his other counselors was Harry L. Hopkins. There was sometimes dissension within the ranks of these advisers; a counselor breaking from the group and denouncing the policies of the administration-and sometimes the President himself-became a familiar occurrence. The steady and rapid buildup of the program and the forceful personality of Roosevelt offset early opposition. His reassuring "fireside chats," broadcast to the nation over the radio, helped to explain issues and policies to the people and to hold for him the mandate of the nation.

In 1936, Roosevelt was reelected by a large majority over his Republican opponent, Alfred M. Landon, who won the electoral votes of only two states. However, the impetus of reform had begun to slow. The opposition (generally conservative) turned more bitter toward "that man in the White House," whom they considered a "traitor to his class." Quarrels and shifts among supporters in the government continued to have a divisive effect. The action of the Supreme Court in declaring a number of the New Deal measures invalid-notably those creating the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration-spurred the opponents of Roosevelt and tended to reduce the pace of reform. Roosevelt tried to reorganize the court in 1937, but failed (see Supreme Court). He failed, too, in his attempt to "purge" members of Congress who had opposed New Deal measures; most of those opponents were triumphant in the elections of 1938. However, the dynamic force of the administration continued to be exerted and to impress foreign observers.

The War Years

Apart from extending diplomatic recognition to the USSR (1933), the main focus of Roosevelt's foreign policy in the early years was the cultivation of "hemisphere solidarity." His "good neighbor" policy toward Latin America, which included the signing of reciprocal trade agreements with many countries, greatly improved relations with the neighboring republics to the south. By 1938, however, the international skies were black, and as the power of the Axis nations grew, Roosevelt spoke out against aggression and international greed.

Although the United States refused to recognize Japan's conquest of Manchuria and decried Japanese aggression against China, negotiations with Japan went on even after World War II had broken out in Europe. After the fighting started, the program that Roosevelt had already begun-to build U.S. strength and make the country an "arsenal of democracy"-was speeded up. In the summer of 1940, after the fall of France and while Great Britain was being blitz-bombed by the Germans, aid to Britain (permitted since relaxation of the Neutrality Act) was greatly increased, and in 1941 lend-lease to the Allies was begun. In the presidential election of 1940 both of the major parties supported the national defense program and aid to Britain but opposed the entry of the United States into the war.

In accepting the nomination for that year Roosevelt broke with tradition; never before had a President run for a third term. Some of his former associates were vocal in criticism. John N. Garner, who had been Vice President, was alienated, and the new vice presidential candidate was Henry A. Wallace. James A. Farley, who had been prominent in managing the earlier campaigns, fell away. John L. Lewis, with his large labor following, bitterly denounced Roosevelt. The Republican candidate, Wendell Willkie, had much more support than Roosevelt's earlier opponents, but again the President won, if by a closer margin.

The story of his third administration is primarily the story of World War II as it affected the United States. The first peacetime selective service act came into full force. In Aug., 1941, Roosevelt met British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at sea and drafted the Atlantic Charter. The United States was becoming more and more aligned with Britain, while U.S. relations with Japan grew steadily worse.

On Dec. 7, 1941, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor plunged the United States into the war. Much later, accusations of responsibility for negligence at Pearl Harbor, and even for starting the war, were leveled at Roosevelt; historians disagree as to the validity of these charges. Roosevelt was, however, responsible to a large extent for the rapid growth of American military strength. He was not only the active head of a nation at war but also one of the world leaders against all that the Axis powers represented. His diplomatic duties were heavy. There was no conflict within the United States over foreign policy, and the election that occurred in wartime was again largely on domestic issues.

In 1944, Roosevelt, who had chosen Harry S. Truman as his running mate, was triumphant over the Republican Thomas E. Dewey. The turn in the fortunes of war had already come, and the series of international conferences with Churchill, Joseph Stalin, Chiang Kai-shek, and others (see Casablanca Conference; Quebec Conference; Tehran Conference; Yalta Conference) began increasingly to include plans for the postwar world. Roosevelt spoke eloquently for human freedom and worked for the establishment of the United Nations.

On Apr. 12, 1945, not quite a month before Germany surrendered to the Allies, Franklin Delano Roosevelt died suddenly from a cerebral hemorrhage. He was buried on the family estate at Hyde Park (much of which he donated to the nation). The Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial Library is there. Roosevelt's character and achievements are still hotly debated by his fervent admirers and his fierce detractors. However, no one denies his immense energy and self-confidence, his mastery of politics, and the enormous impact his presidency had on the development of the country.

Bibliography

Roosevelt's letters (4 vol., 1947-50) were edited by E. Roosevelt, and his public papers and addresses (13 vol., 1938-50, repr. 1969) by S. I. Rosenman. See particularly the works of F. Freidel; biographies by J. Gunther (1950), J. M. Burns (1956, repr. 1970), A. M. Schlesinger, Jr. (3 vol., 1957-60), R. G. Tugwell (1967), C. Black (2003), R. Jenkens (2003), and J. E. Smith (2007); R. E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins (rev. ed. 1950); S. I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (1952, repr. 1972), H. I. Ickes, The Secret Diary (3 vol., 1953-54, repr. 1974), D. R. Fusfeld, The Economic Thought of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Origins of the New Deal (1956, repr. 1969); J. M. Blum, Roosevelt and Morgenthau (1970); J. P. Lash, Eleanor and Franklin (1971); J. Bishop, FDR's Last Year (1974); R. T. Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1982); W. Heinrich, Threshold of War (1988); P. Collier with D. Horowitz, The Roosevelts (1994); D. K. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time (1994); R. H. Jackson, That Man (2003); J. Meacham, Franklin and Winston (2003); J. Alter, The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (2006); A. J. Badger, FDR: The First Hundred Days (2008); A. Cohen, Nothing to Fear (2009); A. Roberts, Masters and Commanders (2009); B. Solomon, FDR v. The Constitution (2009); H. Rowley, Franklin and Eleanor (2010); J. Shesol, Supreme Power: Franklin Roosevelt v. the Supreme Court (2010).

1882 - 1945

Thirty-second president of the United States.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born at Hyde Park, New York; he died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, Georgia. Born into a wealthy family (a distant cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt), he attended Groton, Harvard, and Columbia Law. In 1905, he married Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (another distant cousin), and in 1907 began a law practice in New York City.

Early Career

His political career began in 1910, with his election to the New York State Senate. An opponent of the Democratic party's machine in New York City called Tammany Hall, he soon gained a reputation for independence and progressivism within the Democratic party. He worked for Woodrow Wilson's presidential campaign and was made assistant secretary of the Navy in Wilson's administration from 1913 to 1920, becoming the Democratic nominee for vice president in 1920. When the Cox/Roosevelt ticket lost to the Republican Harding/Coolidge ticket, he returned to his law practice. In August 1921, infantile paralysis left his legs and lower abdomen paralyzed.

Through exercise and treatment, Roosevelt recovered some movement of his lower limbs and was able to continue his law practice and civic affairs. He supported the popular New York City Democrat Alfred E. Smith in the presidential races of 1924 and 1928, then reentered elective politics himself to win the governorship of New York State in 1928 and 1930. In 1932, during the worst of the Great Depression, he won the first of his four presidential elections. His New Deal helped him remain in office throughout the Depression and World War II - one of the most pivotal periods of the nation's history.

Presidential Career - Foreign Policy and World War II

During the 1930s, Roosevelt's foreign policy reflected the isolationist mood of the nation. Relations with Germany, Italy, and Japan cooled; neutrality prevailed after Italy's attacks in North Africa and Germany's on Poland (1939); and the Lend-Lease Program of March 1941 provided matériel to Britain and other nations at war before the United States formally entered World War II in December 1941, after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.

During World War II, Roosevelt cooperated closely with the Allies, including the Soviet Union. He traveled to hold a series of conferences with the heads of state of the major Allied powers, in which he agreed that Europe would be the first priority, with a second front opened against Germany and Italy (the Axis) at the earliest time. This began with the invasion of North Africa by U.S. and British forces in November 1942 (against German and Italian troops), followed by landings on Sicily (a German-occupied Italian island in the Mediterranean) in July 1943, and culminating with the invasion of German-held Normandy (northern France) in June 1944. Crucial to the European theater was the support of Middle Eastern countries. During the December 1943 Tehran Conference, Roosevelt sponsored a communiqué recognizing Iran's contributions to the war effort and expressing support for Iran's independence and territorial integrity. Shortly thereafter, Roosevelt and Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill met in Cairo and requested that Turkey enter the war, a goal that had been pursued by the British since late 1942. Turkey agreed in principle, in exchange for arms support, but a British mission in early 1944 was unable to achieve much; Turkey finally declared war on Germany in February 1945.

Japan's forces were being steadily conquered in the Pacific islands and nations under their occupation and control, and Roosevelt insisted on a policy of unconditional surrender, with the formation of a United Nations to guide world peace in the post-war years. Although he did not live to see either, his vice president, Harry S. Truman, became president on his death, 12 April 1945; Truman had two atomic bombs (developed during the Roosevelt Administration) dropped on Japan in August 1945 and received Japan's unconditional surrender 14 August 1945; Germany had already surrendered in May 1945. Truman also appointed Roosevelt's widow, Eleanor, to join the U.S. delegation at the United Nations; there she headed the UN Commission on Human Rights and was influential in helping to settle the Palestine partition in 1947/48 that resulted in the formation of the State of Israel (1948), which Truman was the first to recognize and back with diplomatic relations.

Wartime Policies toward Refugee Jews and the Middle East

During the war years, victory had been Roosevelt's primary objective. By 1942, although it was clear
that Hitler's program aimed at territorial conquest, it was also clear that total destruction of Europe's Jews was part of the Nazi plan. Advised by members of his administration that any increase in U.S. immigration would meet strong opposition and might affect a successful war effort, Roosevelt did not pursue that route of relief. He also declined to overcome the objections of the U.S. Department of State to ransoming Jews from Nazi-occupied Romania, Bulgaria, and France. He was told that using war matériel to move Jews to Palestine and/or North Africa might incite the Arabs or even cause vindictive action by the Nazis. As the war progressed, the role of petroleum-rich Saudi Arabia increased in importance to the United States.

Before 1940, the United States had no diplomatic representation in Saudi Arabia. The primary U.S. presence was the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO), which had been operating a sixty-year oil concession since 1933. With the beginning of war, ARAMCO activities were curtailed and Muslim pilgrims ceased their pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina - both of which caused an economic crisis for Saudi Arabia. Although Germany and Japan would have welcomed the chance to provide assistance and gain an influential oil-rich ally, Saudi King Ibn Saʿud preferred to continue his alliance with the United States; in early 1941, he requested a loan of thirty million U.S. dollars from ARAMCO to cover lost royalties and, when ARAMCO could not do this, applied to the U.S. government for assistance. Roosevelt was reluctant at first - he had no legislative authority to do this - but he soon managed to have loan monies that had gone to Britain partially diverted to Saudi Arabia, thereby averting that country's bankruptcy. By 1945, Britain had in this way provided some 2.5 million pounds sterling to Saudi Arabia (although after 1943 Lend-Lease was extended and included Saudi Arabia).

Roosevelt's policy on victims of Nazi oppression reflected the general mood of the United States. Fearing that immigration would bring foreign agents (who would cause trouble from within the U.S.) as well as an increase of unemployment (during what was still the Depression, before war work increased necessary jobs nationwide), his administration strictly enforced the very limited quotas of the National Origins Act of 1924. In 1939, he allowed some 27,000 German and Austrian refugees into the United States; this was after the Anschluss (German annexation of Austria), when 190,000 Jews were being expelled from Austria, most into countries that were soon to be occupied by Nazi troops. In 1939, Roosevelt also sponsored a conference of thirty-two nations to discuss the refugee problem - the conference was not able to achieve anything of substance, and Britain refused to discuss the possibility of immigration to Palestine. U.S. immigration actually decreased in 1939 to below the level allowed by the quotas, but this decline was attributed to the transfer of the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service from the Department of Labor to the Department of Justice.

With regard to Jewish immigration to Palestine, Roosevelt was balancing an inclination to support Zionism with the realities of World War II and the consequent pressures from both his Arab and British allies. In 1943, he assured Abdullah I Ibn Hussein, amir of Transjordan, that the United States would not make decisions about Jewish immigration to Palestine that would be hostile to the Arabs. Meeting with King Ibn Saʿud after the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt gave him similar assurances, recapping them in a letter on April 5th. At the same time, Roosevelt had also been expressing support for Zionism; in February 1944 a joint resolution was put before Congress (1) to support unrestricted Jewish immigration to Palestine and (2) for the development of Palestine as a Jewish commonwealth. The vote on this was postponed after General George C. Marshall expressed concern over the impact it might have in the Arab world. Instead, Roosevelt made a public statement in favor of Zionism.

A month earlier, in January of 1944, Roosevelt had agreed to a proactive policy toward refugees from Nazi Europe, including the Jews. This had been the result of a report by Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr., "On Acquiescence of This Government to the Murder of the Jews." Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board, with its charter to rescue those singled out for destruction. The board avoided the problem of U.S. immigration quotas by establishing emergency rescue shelters to house the refugees temporarily. The change in policy was too late for most of Europe's Jews, and it was not accompanied by a change in bombing policies - which might have been aimed at disrupting the rail lines and ancillary activities that led to the concentration camps.

Roosevelt's strength began to fail during the last year of the war, although his charisma and charm continued to be felt by his people, who championed his efforts with his allies and against his enemies. His personal leadership during the war was recorded on news film and broadcast on radio. Only many years after his death was his administration criticized with respect to its handling of the Middle East situation.

Bibliography

Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932 - 1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.

Lenczowski, George. The Middle East in World Affairs, 4th edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980.

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. The Coming of the New Deal. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919 - 1933. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. The Politics of Upheaval. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.

— DANIEL E. SPECTOR

A political leader of the twentieth century. Roosevelt was president from 1933 to 1945, longer than anyone else in American history; he was elected four times. Roosevelt, a Democrat who had been governor of New York, defeated President Herbert Hoover in the election of 1932. He took office at one of the worst points in the Great Depression but told the American public, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” The early part of his presidency is remembered for the New Deal, a group of government programs designed to reverse the devastating effects of the Depression. He used fireside chats over the radio to build public support for his policies. In the later years of his presidency, he attempted to support the Allies in World War II without bringing the United States into the war. At this time, he made his speech announcing the Four Freedoms. After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war. Roosevelt began the Manhattan Project, which produced the atomic bomb, a weapon that after his death brought a quick but highly controversial end to the war. Near the war's end, Roosevelt negotiated the Yalta agreement with Britain and the Soviet Union. He died a few weeks before Germany surrendered and before the end of the war with Japan.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as the thirty-second president of the United States from 1933 to 1945. During his unprecedented four terms in office, Roosevelt established himself as a towering national leader, leading the United States out of the Great Depression through the active involvement of the federal government in the national economy. The federal government grew dramatically in size and power as Congress enacted Roosevelt's New Deal program. As president, Roosevelt was responsible for the creation of Social Security, federal labor laws, rural electrification programs, and myriad projects that assisted farmers, business, and labor. During World War II Roosevelt's leadership was vital to rallying the spirits of the citizenry and mobilizing a wartime economy. Nevertheless, Roosevelt was a controversial figure. Many economic conservatives believed his programs owed more to state socialism than to free enterprise.

Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York, the only son of James and Sara Delano Roosevelt. The young Roosevelt was taught to be a gentleman and to exercise Christian stewardship through public service. He graduated from Harvard University in 1904 and in 1905 wed Eleanor Roosevelt, the niece of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt attended Columbia University Law School but left without receiving a degree when he passed the New York bar exam in 1907.

In 1910 Roosevelt was elected to the New York Senate as a member of the Democratic party. Reelected in 1912, he resigned in 1913 to accept an appointment from President Woodrow Wilson as assistant secretary of the navy. For the next seven years, Roosevelt proved an effective administrator and an advocate of reform in the navy.

Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the 1920 Democratic party ticket. He waged a vigorous campaign in support of the presidential nominee, James M. Cox, but the Republican ticket headed by Warren G. Harding soundly defeated Cox and Roosevelt. After the election Roosevelt joined a Maryland bonding company and began investing in various business schemes.

Roosevelt's life changed in August 1921, when he was stricken with poliomyelitis while vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick. Initially, Roosevelt was completely paralyzed, but over several years of intense therapy, he made gradual improvement. His legs, however, suffered permanent paralysis. For the rest of his life, he used a wheelchair and could walk only a few steps with the help of leg braces.

Eleanor Roosevelt believed her husband's recovery depended on his reentry into New York politics. She attended meetings, made speeches, and reported back to him on the political events of the day. By 1924 Roosevelt was at the Democratic National Convention nominating Governor Alfred E. Smith of New York for president. Smith, who lost the presidential elections in 1924 and 1928, showed Roosevelt the ways of New York state politics and pushed him to run for governor in 1928. A reluctant Roosevelt won by a narrow margin, but soon was governing as if he had won by a landslide. With the stock market crash of October 25, 1929, the United States was thrown into a national economic depression of unprecedented severity. As governor, Roosevelt set up the first state public relief agency and tried to find ways to spark an economic recovery. His landslide reelection in 1930 made him the logical candidate to face the Republican president Herbert Hoover in the next presidential election.

Roosevelt was nominated for president on the third ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention. During the campaign Roosevelt called for the federal government to take action to revive the economy and end the suffering of the thirteen million unemployed people. Hoover advocated a more limited role for the federal government in the national economy. Roosevelt easily defeated Hoover and brought with him large Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress.

Roosevelt took office on March 4, 1933, at a time when the economy appeared hopeless. In his inaugural address he reassured the nation that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." He proposed a New Deal for the people of the United States and promised to use the power of the executive branch to address the economic crisis.

During his first hundred days in office, Roosevelt sent Congress many pieces of legislation that sought to boost economic activity and restore the circulation of money through federally funded work programs. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided unemployment relief and an opportunity for national service to young workers, while promoting conservation through reforestation and flood control work. Federal funds were given to state relief agencies for direct relief, and the Reconstruction Finance Company was given the authority to make loans to small and large businesses.

The centerpieces of Roosevelt's New Deal legislation were the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 (7 U.S.C.A. §601 et seq.) and the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933 (48 Stat. 195). The AAA sought to raise farm prices by giving farmers federal subsidies if they reduced their agricultural production.

The NIRA was a comprehensive attempt to manage all phases of U.S. business. It established the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to administer codes of fair practice within each industry. Under these codes labor and management negotiated minimum wages, maximum hours, and fair-trade practices for each industry. The Roosevelt administration sought to use these codes to stabilize production, raise prices, and protect labor and consumers. By early 1934 there were 557 basic codes and 208 supplementary ones. In 1935, however, the Supreme Court struck down the NIRA in A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495, 55 S. Ct. 837, 79 L. Ed. 1570.

In 1935 Roosevelt and the Congress passed the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C.A. §301 et seq.), a fundamental piece of social welfare legislation that provided unemployment compensation and pensions for those over the age of sixty-five. More groundbreaking legislation came with the passage of the Wagner Act, also known as the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) of 1935 (29 U.S.C.A. §151 et seq.), which recognized for the first time the right of workers to organize unions and engage in collective bargaining with employers.

Roosevelt handily defeated Republican Alfred M. Landon, the governor of Kansas, in the 1936 presidential election. In his second term, however, Roosevelt met more resistance to his legislative initiatives. Between 1935 and 1937, the Supreme Court struck down as unconstitutional eight New Deal programs that attempted to regulate the national economy. Most of the conservative justices who voted against the New Deal statutes were over the age of seventy. Roosevelt responded by proposing that justices be allowed to retire at age seventy at full pay. Any justice who declined this offer would be forced to have an assistant with full voting rights. The assistant, of course, as a Roosevelt appointee, would be more likely to be sympathetic to the president's political ideals. This plan to "pack" the Court was met with hostility by Democrats and Republicans and rejected as an act of political interference. Despite the rejection of his plan, Roosevelt ultimately prevailed. In 1937 the Supreme Court upheld the Wagner Act in NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1, 57 S. Ct. 615, 81 L. Ed. 893, signaling an end to the invalidation of New Deal laws that sought to reshape the national economy. From Jones onward the Court permitted the federal government to take a dominant role in matters of commerce.

By 1937 the national economy appeared to be recovering. In the fall of 1937, however, the economy went into a recession, accompanied by a dramatic increase in unemployment. Roosevelt responded by instituting massive government spending, and by June 1938 the economy had stabilized.

During the later 1930s, Roosevelt became preoccupied with foreign policy. The rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany, coupled with a militaristic Japanese government that had invaded Manchuria in 1933, created international tensions that Roosevelt realized might come to involve the United States. U.S. foreign policy had traditionally counseled against entanglements with other nations, and the 1930s had seen a resurgence of isolationist thought. Roosevelt, while publicly agreeing with isolationist legislators, quietly moved to enhance U.S. military strength.

With the outbreak of World War II in Europe in August 1939, Roosevelt sought to aid Great Britain and France against Germany and Italy. The Neutrality Act of 1939 (22 U.S.C.A. §441), however, prohibited the export of arms to any belligerent. With some difficulty Roosevelt secured the repeal of this provision so that military equipment could be sold to Great Britain and France.

In 1940 Roosevelt took the unprecedented step of seeking a third term. Although there was no constitutional prohibition against a third term, President George Washington had established the tradition of serving only two terms. Nevertheless, Roosevelt was concerned about the approach of war and decided a third term was necessary to continue his plans. He defeated the Republican nominee, Wendell L. Willkie, pledging that he would keep the United States out of war. Roosevelt's margin of victory in the popular vote was closer than in 1936, but he still won the electoral college vote easily.

Following his reelection, Roosevelt became more public in his support of the Allies. At his urging, Congress moved further away from neutrality by passing the Lend-Lease Act of 1941 (55 Stat. 31). Lend-Lease provided munitions, food, machinery, and services to Great Britain and other Allies without immediate cost.

The United States entered World War II following the Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. Roosevelt rallied a stunned citizenry and began the mobilization of a wartime economy. In his public speeches and "fireside chats" on the radio, Roosevelt imparted the strong determination that the United States would prevail in the conflict. He met with Winston Churchill, the prime minister of Great Britain, and Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, several times during the war to discuss military strategy and to plan power-sharing in the postwar world. Roosevelt, who needed the Soviet Union's cooperation in defeating Germany, sought to minimize conflicts with Stalin over postwar boundaries in Europe.

In 1944 Roosevelt decided to run for a fourth term. Though his health had seriously declined, he wished to remain commander in chief for the remainder of the war. The Republican party nominated Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York for president, but again Roosevelt turned back the challenge, winning 432 electoral votes to Dewey's 99.

In February 1945 Roosevelt traveled to Yalta in the Crimea to meet with Churchill and Stalin. Germany was on the edge of defeat, but Japan's defeat did not appear imminent. Stalin accepted Roosevelt and Churchill's offer of territorial concessions in Asia in return for his promise that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated. At Yalta the leaders reaffirmed earlier agreements and made plans for the establishment of democratic governments in eastern Europe. The Yalta agreements were not clearly written, however, and therefore were open to differing interpretations by the Allies. Within a month after Yalta, Roosevelt sent a sharp message to Stalin concerning Soviet accusations that Great Britain and the United States were trying to rob the Soviets of their legitimate territorial interests.

Early in the war, Roosevelt decided that an effective international organization should be established after the war to replace the League of Nations. At Yalta, Roosevelt pressed for the creation of the United Nations as a mechanism to preserve world peace. A conference attended by fifty nations was scheduled to begin on April 25, 1945, in San Francisco, California, to draft a United Nations charter. Roosevelt had planned to attend, but his health had steadily declined since the 1944 election.

Instead, Roosevelt went to his retreat in Warm Springs, Georgia, where he had begun his rehabilitation from polio in the 1920s. He died there on April 12, 1945. Vice President Harry S. Truman succeeded Roosevelt. On May 7 the war in Europe ended with Germany's surrender; four months later, on September 2, Japan also surrendered, ending the war in the Pacific.

Quotes:

"The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself."

"But while they prate of economic laws, men and women are starving. We must lay hold of the fact that economic laws are not made by nature. They are made by human beings."

"An election cannot give a country a firm sense of direction if it has two or more national parties which merely have different names, but are as alike in their principals and aims as two peas in the same pod."

"I have no expectation of making a hit every time I come to bat."

"If it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something."

"The only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today. Let us move forward with strong and active faith."

See more famous quotes by Franklin D. Roosevelt

When Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office, the most pressing problem in America was the terrible poverty and hopelessness produced by the Great Depression. In his "New Deal" program, Roosevelt created welfare programs to help desperately poor Americans. This won the support of many American Jews, who agreed with Roosevelt's social-democratic tendencies. By the election of 1940, Roosevelt's third, nine out of ten Jews were voting for him. Many American Jews stayed loyal to Roosevelt throughout his presidency despite his inactivity concerning the Jewish situation in Europe.

In fact, Roosevelt did instruct American consuls in Europe to try and help Jewish Refugees who were seeking visas to the United States. He also recalled his ambassador to Germany in a gesture of objection after the Kristallnacht pogrom of November 9--10, 1938. In addition, he allowed Jews who were in the United States on visitor's visas to extend their stay. However, he would not significantly change the country's strict immigration laws to allow more refugees. He may have succumbed to the pressure of anti-immigrationists who feared that new immigrants would take away jobs from "real" Americans. Roosevelt also allowed consular officials to refuse visas to anyone who might, at a later time, need public assistance. This excuse was often used to keep Jewish refugees out of the United States. This type of inaction slipped down a slippery slope that continued into the next stage of the Holocaust: mass murder of Europe's Jews. As time went on, suggestions made about helping the Jews in Europe were routinely rejected by various government agencies.

After Germany annexed Austria in March 1938, Roosevelt made a weak attempt to deal with the growing Jewish refugee problem by calling the Evian Conference. Thirty-two countries were invited to meet in France in July to discuss possible solutions. However, one by one, each country's representative announced that his country was filled to the brim with refugees and could not admit any more. In all, the conference failed when the US refused to set a humanitarian example.

Two agencies were created as a result of the Evian Conference---the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees (IGCR), and the President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees (PAC). However, these committees were essentially for show; like the conference, they were intended to keep rescue activists quiet, rather than actually help any Jews.

When the "final solution" was at its most horrifying in 1943, and the rest of the world was aware of it, Roosevelt convened a second refugee conference in Bermuda along with the British, called the bermuda conference. This, too, accomplished nothing. Only as the result of a special entreaty made by Secretary of the Treasury Henry morgenthau (who informed the president that the State Department had been systematically sabotaging the rescue effort) did Roosevelt create the war refugee board in 1944. However, by the time of its creation most of European Jewry had already been murdered.

Some believe that Roosevelt simply did not want to help Europe's Jews. However, it is more likely that he was distracted by the war and his health problems, and just did not comprehend the extent of the Holocaust's horrors.