Dictionary:
spinal cord
n.
The thick, whitish cord of nerve tissue that extends from the medulla oblongata down through the spinal column and from which the spinal nerves branch off to various parts of the body.
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Sci-Tech Encyclopedia:
Spinal cord
The portion of the central nervous system within the spinal canal of the vertebral column, that is, the entire central nervous system except the brain. The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to a variable level of the spinal canal; it terminates at the lumbar level in humans and extends well into the caudal region in fishes.
The outer portion of the spinal cord is made up of nerve fibers most of which are oriented longitudinally and carry information between parts of the spinal cord, between spinal cord and brain, and between brain and spinal cord. The outer white matter is divided into dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns. The interior of the spinal cord consists of gray matter and is divided into a dorsal sensory horn (or column) and a ventral motor horn (or column). In the thoracic and lumbar regions of the cord there is also a small lateral horn (or column) which contains preganglionic sympathetic neurons. In the very center of the bilaterally symmetrical spinal cord is a small central canal, containing cerebrospinal fluid. See also Sympathetic nervous system.
Paired spinal nerves enter the spinal canal between each pair of vertebrae and connect with the spinal cord. The number of spinal nerves varies widely in vertebrates; in humans there are 31 pairs (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal). Each spinal nerve divides into a dorsal sensory root and a ventral motor root before entering the spinal cord. The motor neurons of the ventral horn, in addition to receiving synapses from dorsal root axons, also receive synaptic endings from neurons in other parts of the spinal cord and from long axons coming from the brain. The axons of the ventral horn neurons leave the cord through the ventral root of the spinal nerve and run with peripheral nerves to innervate the muscles of the body. With this complex synaptic and fiber organization, the spinal cord can act as the integrating center for spinal reflexes (such as the knee jerk reflex), send sensory information from the brain, and receive information from the brain to initiate or inhibit muscular activity. See also Motor systems; Nervous system (vertebrate); Sensation.
World of the Body:
spinal cord
The spinal cord extends down from the brain stem at the base of the skull, enclosed in the vertebral canal; brain and spinal cord in continuity comprise the central nervous system. Like the brain, the cord is ensheathed by membranes (meninges), and bathed by cerebrospinal fluid. In the spinal cord are tracts of white matter, nerve fibres carrying information to and from the brain as well as between different levels of the cord itself; and a core of grey matter, containing nerve cells and synapses that mediate motor, sensory, and reflex functions. The substance of the cord is continuous, but functional segments are marked by the series of nerve roots at intervals down its length. At each level, two nerve roots (dorsal or posterior carrying ingoing nerve impulses; ventral or anterior carrying outgoing impulses) join to form a spinal nerve on each side. The uppermost emerges between the skull and the uppermost cervical vertebra; the rest emerge between two adjacent vertebrae, and between the segments of the sacrum. There are 8 cervical nerves, and below this the nerves are named according to the vertebra above their point of exit: thus there are 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal nerve. The spinal canal is longer, however, than the spinal cord, which ends in the lumbar part of the canal. Therefore the distance that a spinal nerve must travel to reach its point of exit increases from above downwards, from zero for the first cervical nerve to about 20 cm for the lowest sacral and coccygeal. In the canal below the end of the cord, there is therefore a sheaf of descending spinal nerves that becomes progressively smaller as the nerves leave; this is known as the horse's tail — the cauda equina. This arrangement has consequences for the effects of spinal injury at different vertebral levels. Anywhere above the second lumbar vertebra, it is the spinal cord that is damaged; below this, it is spinal nerves. Spinal cord damage leaves uncontrolled motor neurons below the level of the lesion; voluntary movement is lost, but after recovery from an initial period of spinal shock, the muscles can and do contract, spontaneously and reflexly: a spastic paralysis. Damage to the spinal nerves in the cauda equina, by contrast, separates the affected muscles from their spinal motor neurons; voluntary movement is lost and the muscles remain relaxed: a flaccid paralysis followed by wasting. In either case paralysis is accompanied by loss of sensation.
Diagram of part of the spinal cord, with the anterior white matter cut way, and two sets of segmental nerve roots
— Sheila Jennett
See nervous system. See also central nervous system; meninges; motor neurons; paralysis; reflexes; spinal shock.
Dental Dictionary:
spinal cord
n
The central nervous system cord contained in the vertebral column. The spinal cord is essential to the regulation and administration of various motor, sensory, and autonomic nerve activities of the body. Through its pathways it conducts impulses from the extremities, trunk, and neck to and from the higher centers and to consciousness. It thus provides for simple reflexes, has control over visceral activities, and participates in the conscious activities of the body.
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
spinal cord
(click to enlarge)
Section of a spinal cord. The anterior horn of the gray matter contains cell bodies from which the (credit: © Merriam-Webster Inc.)
Section of a spinal cord. The anterior horn of the gray matter contains cell bodies from which the (credit: © Merriam-Webster Inc.)
For more information on spinal cord, visit Britannica.com.
Sports Science and Medicine:
spinal cord
Part of the central nervous system that extends down the back as a relatively uniform tube. The spinal cord is enclosed and protected by the vertebrae. Pairs of spinal nerves leave the cord in each segment of the body. The cord is continuous with the brain.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
spinal cord,
the part of the nervous system occupying the hollow interior (vertebral canal) of the series of vertebrae that form the spinal column, technically known as the vertebral column. Extending from the first lumbar vertebra to the medulla at the base of the brain, the spinal cord of a human adult is about 18 in. (45 cm) long. Structurally, the cord is a double-layered tube, roughly cylindrical in cross section. The outer layer consists of white matter, i.e., myelin-sheathed nerve fibers. These are bundled into specialized tracts that conduct impulses triggered by pressure, pain, heat, and other sensory stimuli or conduct motor impulses activating muscles and glands. The inner layer, or gray matter, is primarily composed of nerve cell bodies. Within the gray matter, running the length of the cord and extending into the brain, lies the central canal through which circulates the cerebrospinal fluid. Three protective membranes, the meninges, wrap the spinal cord and cover the brain—the pia mater is the innermost layer, the arachnoid lies in the middle, and the dura mater is the outside layer, to which the spinal nerves are attached. Connecting with the cord are 31 pairs of these spinal nerves, which feed sensory impulses into the spinal cord, which in turn relays them to the brain. Conversely, motor impulses generated in the brain are relayed by the spinal cord to the spinal nerves, which pass the impulses to muscles and glands. The spinal cord mediates the reflex responses to some sensory impulses directly, i.e., without recourse to the brain, as when a person's leg is tapped producing the knee jerk reflex. Nerve fibers in the spinal cord usually do not regenerate if injured by accident or disease.
Health Dictionary:
spinal cord
The thick column of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain about two thirds of the way down the backbone. As part of the central nervous system, the spinal cord carries impulses back and forth between the brain and other parts of the body through a network of nerves that extend out from it like branches.
Veterinary Dictionary:
spinal cord
That part of the central nervous system lodged in the spinal canal, extending from the foramen magnum to a point in the lumbar or sacral vertebrae, depending on the species.
- s. c. abscess — see spinal abscess.
- s. c. atrophy — diminution in mass of the entire cord, is usually the hallmark of undernutrition or old age, or both.
- s. c. compression — may be gradual due to space-occupying lesion of vertebral canal, such as abscess, callus of a fracture, or a tumor, or acute due to fracture dislocation or thrombosis. In general, clinical signs include paresis or paralysis, but depending on the level of the spinal cord involved and the type of lesion present there may also be urinary incontinence, loss of sensation, Horner's syndrome, and in acute lesions, spinal shock.
- s. c. degeneration — see myelomalacia.
- s. c. hemorrhage — see hematomyelia.
- s. c. hypoplasia — usually segmental, especially in the lumbar area.
- s. c. local ischemia — caused by embolus of a spinal artery; has the same effect as traumatic injury (see below).
- s. c. tracts — more or less distinct bundles of fibers within the white matter of the spinal cord. There are three funiculi on each side of the cord—dorsal, lateral and ventral; subdivisions within the funiculi include eleven major tracts—gracile and cuneate fasciculi, lateral and ventral corticospinal tracts, rubrospinal tract, dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts, lateral and ventral spinothalamic tracts, elementary apparatus fibers, ventral corticospinal tract, vestibulospinal tract.
- s. c. traumatic injury — fracture or dislocation of one or more vertebrae; causes a syndrome of acute flaccid paralysis in the area supplied with nerves from the injured segment and spastic paralysis in the parts supplied by the cord segments caudal to the injury.
Wikipedia:
spinal cord
The spinal chord is a thin, tubular bundle of nerves that is an extension of the central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected by the bony vertebral column. The main function of the spinal cord is transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and the brain.
Structure
The human spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata in the brain and continues to the conus medullaris near the lumbar level at L1-2, terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.
It is about 45 cm long in men and 42 cm long in women, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. The peripheral regions of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor neurons. The central region is a four-leaf clover shape that surrounds the central canal (an anatomic extension of the fourth ventricle) and contains nerve cell bodies.
The three meninges that cover the spinal cord -- the outer dura mater, the arachnoid membrane, and the innermost pia mater -- are continuous with that in the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres, with cerebrospinal fluid found in the subarachnoid space. The cord within the pia mater is stabilized within the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments which extends from the pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of S2.
Sensory Organization
Somatosensory organization is divided into a touch/proprioception/vibration sensory pathway and a pain/temperature sensory pathway, which are more formally known as the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and the spinothalamic tract, respectively.
Each of these sensory pathways utilizes three different neurons to get from the sensory receptors to the cerebral cortex. These neurons are designated primary, secondary and tertiary sensory neurons. The primary neuron has its cell body in the dorsal root ganglia and its axon projects into the spinal cord.
In the case of the touch/proprioception/vibration sensory pathway, the primary neuron enters the spinal cord and travels in the dorsal column. Below level T6, the neuron travels in the fasciculus gracilis - the most medial part of the column. Above level T6, the neuron enters the fasciculus cuneatus - lateral to the fasiculus gracilis.
As the primary axons reach the caudal medulla, they leave their respective fasiculi and enter and synapse on secondary neurons within the nucleus gracilis and the nucleus cuneatus, respectively. At this point, the seconday neuronal axons decussate and continue to ascend as the medial leminiscus. They run up to the VPL nucleus of the thalamus,and synapse there on the tertiary neurons. From there, the tertiary neurons ascend via the posterior limb of the internal capsule to the post central gyrus, or Brodmann's Area 3,1,2.
The pain/temperature sensory pathway differs from that of the touch/proprioception/vibration pathway. The pain neurons enter as primary neurons and ascend 1-2 levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa. The tract that ascends those 1-2 levels before synapsing is known as Lissauer's tract. After synapsing, the secondary neurons cross decussate and ascend as the spinothalamic tract in the anterior lateral portion of the spinal cord. Hence, the spinothalamic tract is also known as the anterior lateral system (ALS). The tract ascends all the way to the VPL of the thalamus where it synapses on the tertiary neurons. The tertiary neuronal axons then project via the posterior limb of the internal capsule to the post-central gyrus or Broadmann's Area 3,1,2.
It should be noted that the pain fibers in the ALS can also deviate in their pathway towards the VPL. In one pathway, the axons project towards the reticular formation in the midbrain. The reticular formation then project to a number of places including the hippocampus (to create memories about the pain), to the centromedian nucleus (to cause diffuse, non-specific pain) and the various places on the cortex. The third place that the neurons project to is the periaqueductal gray in the pons. The neurons form the periaqueductal gray then project to the nucleus raphe magnus which projects back down to where the pain signal is coming in from and inhibits it. This reduces the pain sensation to some degree.
Motor Organization
Upper motor neuronal input comes from two places- first from the cerebral cortex and second from more primitive brainstem
nuclei. Cortical upper motor neurons originate in Brodmann Areas 4, 6, 3, 1 and 2. They then descend through the genu and the
posterior limb of the internal capsule. This pathway is known as the corticospinal tract. After passing through the internal capsule, the tract descends through the
cerebral peduncles, down through the pons and to the medullary pyramids. At
this point, ~85% of these upper motor neuronal axons decussate. These fibers then descend as the lateral corticospinal tract. The
remaining ~15% descend as the anterior corticospinal tract.
The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor neuronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor
neurons. These are the rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract and the
reticulospinal tract. The rubrospinal tract descends with the lateral corticospinal
tract and the remaining three descend with the anterior corticospinal tract.
The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different groups--first,the lateral corticospinal tract and
second, the anterior cortical spinal tract. The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons
which synapse on dorsal lateral (DL) lower motor neurons. The DL neurons are involved in distal limb control. Therefore, these DL neurons are found specifically only in the
cervical and lumbosaccral enlargements within the spinal cord. There is no decussation in the lateral corticospinal tract after
the decussation at the medullary pyramids.
The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior column where the axons emerge and either synapse on lower motor neurons, known as ventromedial (VM) lower motor neurons, in the ventral horn ipsilaterally, or descussate at the anterior white commissure where they synapse on VM lower motor neurons contralaterally . The tectospinal, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal descend ipsilaterally in the anterior column, but do not synapse across the anterior white commissure. Rather, they only synapse on VM lower motor neurons ipsilaterally. The VM lower motor neurons control axial motor function-- the large, postural muscles. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of the DL, are located in the ventral horn all the way throughout the spinal cord.
Spinocerebellar Tracts
Proprioceptiveinformation in the body travels up the spinal cord via three tracts.
Below L2 the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in the ventral
spinocerebellar tract. Also known as the anterior spinocerebellar tract, sensory receptors take in the information and
travel into the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. In the spinal cord, the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons
decussate and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where
they decussate again. From here, the information is brought to deep nuclei of the cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei.
From the levels of L2 to T1, the proprioceptive information enters the spinal cord and ascends ipsilaterally where it synapses in
the Dorsal Nucleus of Clark. The secondary neuronal axons continue to ascend ispilaterally and
enter the pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
This tract is known as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract and also as the
posterior spinocerebellar tract.
From above T1, proprioceptive primary axons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally until reaching the accessory cuneate nucleus, where they synapse. The secondary axons pass into the cerebellum
via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where again, these axons synapse on cerebellar deep nuclei. This tract is known as the
cuneocerebellar tract.
Spinal cord segments
The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments, with motor nerve roots exiting in the ventral aspects and sensory nerve roots entering in the dorsal aspects. The ventral and dorsal roots later join to form paired spinal nerves, one on each side of the spinal cord.
There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:
- 8 cervical segments (nerves exit spinal column above C1 and below C1-C7)
- 12 thoracic segments (nerves exit spinal column below T1-T12)
- 5 lumbar segments (nerves exit spinal column below L1-L5)
- 5 sacral segments (nerves exit spinal column below S1-S5)
- 1 coccygeal segment (nerves exit spinal column at coccyx)
Because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments become higher than the corresponding vertebra, especially in the lower spinal cord segments in adults. In a fetus, the vertebral levels originally correspond with the spinal cord segments. In the adult, the cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level at the conus medullaris, with all of the spinal cord segments located superiorly to this. For example, the segments for the lumbar and sacral regions are found between the vertebral levels of T9 and L2. The S4 spinal nerve roots arise from the cord around the upper lumbar/lower thoracic vertebral region, and descend downward in the vertebral canal. After they pass the end of the spinal cord, they are considered to be part of the cauda equina. The roots for S4 finally leave the vertebral canal in the sacrum.
There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:
- Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
- Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3, and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.
Embryology
The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. As the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog or SHH. As a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor neurons. Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This will induce the roof plate to begin to also secrete BMP which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons. The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans.
Additionally, the floor plate will also secrete netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure where they will then ascend towards the thalamus.
Lastly it is important to note that the past studies of Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini in the chick embryo have been further proven by more recent studies which demonstrated that the elimination of neuronal cells by programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct assembly of the nervous system.
Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in neuron and muscle development, but is probably not involved in the initial formation of connections between spinal neurons.
Injury
Spinal cord injuries can be caused by falling on the neck or back, or having the spinal cord moved or disrupted in another
way. The vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal
cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually victims of spinal
cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases a victim might only suffer loss of
hand or foot function. More severe injury may result in
paraplegia, tetraplegia, or full body paralysis below the site of injury to the spinal cord.
Damage to upper motor neurons axons in the spinal cord results in a characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits. These include hyperreflexia, hypertonia and muscle weakness. Lower motor neuronal damage results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits. Rather than an entire side of deficits, there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage. Additionally, lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle weakness, hypotonia, hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy.
The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical spine (C1-C7) and the lumbar spine (L1-L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.)
Additional images
 Diagrams of the spinal cord. |
 Cross-section through the spinal cord at the mid-thoracic level. |
 Cross-sections of the spinal cord at varying levels. |
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
External links
- Spinal Cord Histology - A multitude of great Images from the University of Cincinnati
- Spinal Cord Medical Notes - Online medical notes on the Spinal Cord
- eMedicine: Spinal Cord, Topographical and Functional Anatomy
- WebMD. May 17, 2005. Spina Bifida - Topic Overview Information about Spina Bifida in fetuses and throughout adulthood. WebMD children's health. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
| Anatomy of torso (primarily): the spinal cord | |
|---|---|
| Spinal nerve | Dorsal (Root, Ganglion, Ramus) • Ventral (Root, Ramus) • Sympathetic trunk • rami communicantes (Gray, White) |
| Gray matter/Rexed laminae | Posterior horn (Column of Clarke, Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando, Nucleus proprius) • Lateral horn • Anterior horn • Central canal/Substantia gelatinosa centralis |
| White matter: somatic/ascending (blue) | |
| White matter: motor/descending (red) |
Lateral: Corticospinal (Lateral) • Ep (Rubrospinal, Olivospinal) Anterior: Corticospinal (Anterior) • Ep (Vestibulospinal, Tectospinal, Reticulospinal) |
| Layers | Epidural space • Dura mater • Subdural space • Arachnoid mater • Subarachnoid space • Pia mater |
| Other structures | Denticulate ligaments • Conus medullaris • Cauda equina • Filum terminale • Cervical enlargement • Lumbar enlargement • Anterior median fissure |
| Vertebral column and spinal cord | |
|---|---|
| Vertebrae | cervical:
C1 (Atlas) • C2 (Axis) • C3 • C4 • C5 • C6 •
C7 (Vertebra prominens)
thoracic: T1 • T2 • T3 • T4 • T5 • T6 • T7 • T8 • T9 • T10 • T11 • T12 lumbar: L1 • L2 • L3 • L4 • L5 sacral: S1 • S2 • S3 • S4 • S5 coccygeal: Co1 • Co2 • Co3 • (Co4) • (Co5) |
| Spinal nerves | cervical: C1 • C2 • C3 • C4 • C5 • C6 • C7 • C8
thoracic: T1 • T2 • T3 • T4 • T5 • T6 • T7 • T8 • T9 • T10 • T11 • T12 lumbar: L1 • L2 • L3 • L4 • L5 sacral: S1 • S2 • S3 • S4 • S5 coccygeal: Co |
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 | Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2007. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Sci-Tech Encyclopedia. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Copyright © 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| World of the Body. The Oxford Companion to the Body. Copyright © 2001, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Dental Dictionary. Mosby's Dental Dictionary. Copyright © 2004 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. © 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Sports Science and Medicine. The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Copyright © Michael Kent 1998, 2006, 2007. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/ Read more |
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| Health Dictionary. The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Edited by E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. Copyright © 2002 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Veterinary Dictionary. Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. Copyright © 2007 by D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Spinal cord". Read more |
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