Explain how the reproductive adaptations of the platypus increases the chance of the continuity of the species in the Australian Environment?

Answer 1

because it is =P == Fertilization in the platypus exhibits both sauropsid and therian characteristics. Platypus ova are small (4 mm diameter) relative to comparably sized reptiles and birds, and eggs hatch at an early stage of development so that most growth of the embryo and infant is dependent on lactation, as in marsupials. Like all mammals and many other amniotes, when fertilization occurs the ovum is invested with a zona pellucida. The platypus genome encodes each of the four proteins of the human zona pellucida38, as well as two ZPAX genes (Table 1) that previously were observed only in birds, amphibians and fish. The aspartyl-protease nothepsin is present in platypus, but has been lost from marsupial and eutherian genomes (Table 1). In zebrafish, this gene is specifically expressed in the liver of females under the action of oestrogens, and accumulates in the ovary39. These are the same characteristics as of the vitellogenins, indicating that nothepsin may be involved in processing vitellogenin or other egg-yolk proteins. We find that platypus has retained a single vitellogenin gene and pseudogene, whereas sauropsids such as chicken have three and the viviparous marsupials and eutherians have none. == Orthologues of many of the eutherian sperm membrane proteins related to fertilization40 are present in platypus (and marsupial) genomes. These include the genes for a number of putative zona pellucida receptors and proteins implicated in sperm-oolemma fusion. Testis-specific proteases, which in eutherians participate in degradation of the zona pellucida during fertilization, are all absent from the platypus genome assembly. Monotreme spermatozoa undergo some post-testicular maturational changes, including the acquisition of progressive motility, loss of cytoplasmic droplets and aggregation of single spermatozoa into bundles during passage through the epididymis11. Nevertheless, maturational changes in the sperm surface that are both unique and essential in other mammals for fertilization of the ovum have yet to be identified. Also, the epididymis of monotremes is not highly adapted for sperm storage as in most marsupial and eutherian mammals. Consistent with these findings is the absence of platypus genes for the epididymal-specific proteins that have been implicated in sperm maturation and storage in other mammals. The most abundant secreted protein in the platypus epididymis is a lipocalin, the homologues of which are the most secreted proteins in the reptilian epididymis41. Notably, ADAM7, a protease that is secreted in the epididymis of eutherians, has an orthologue in the platypus. This is a bona fide protease with a characteristic Zn2+-coordinating sequence HExxH in the platypus, in the opossum and the tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri). However, loss of its proteolytic activity is predicted in eutherians42 owing to a single point mutation within its active site (E to Q). == Lactation is an ancient reproductive trait whose origin predates the origin of mammals. It has been proposed that early lactation evolved as a water source to protect porous parchment-shelled eggs from desiccation during incubation43 or as a protection against microbial infection. Parchment-shelled egg-laying monotremes also exhibit a more ancestral glandular mammary patch or areola without a nipple that may still possess roles in egg protection. However, in common with all mammals, the milk of monotremes has evolved beyond primitive egg protection into a true milk that is a rich secretion containing sugars, lipids and milk proteins with nutritional, anti-microbial and bioactive functions. In a reflection of this eutherian similarity platypus casein genes are tightly clustered together in the genome, as they are in other mammals, although platypus contains a recently duplicated -casein gene (Supplementary Fig. 2). Mammalian casein genes are thought to have originally arisen by duplication of either enamelin or ameloblastin44, both of which are tooth enamel matrix protein genes that are located adjacent to the casein gene cluster in eutherians and, we find, also in platypus. Adult platypuses, as well as echidnas, lack teeth but the conservation of these enamel protein genes is consistent with the presence of teeth and enamel in the juvenile, as well as the fossil platypuses45. because it is =P == Fertilization in the platypus exhibits both sauropsid and therian characteristics. Platypus ova are small (4 mm diameter) relative to comparably sized reptiles and birds, and eggs hatch at an early stage of development so that most growth of the embryo and infant is dependent on lactation, as in marsupials. Like all mammals and many other amniotes, when fertilization occurs the ovum is invested with a zona pellucida. The platypus genome encodes each of the four proteins of the human zona pellucida38, as well as two ZPAX genes (Table 1) that previously were observed only in birds, amphibians and fish. The aspartyl-protease nothepsin is present in platypus, but has been lost from marsupial and eutherian genomes (Table 1). In zebrafish, this gene is specifically expressed in the liver of females under the action of oestrogens, and accumulates in the ovary39. These are the same characteristics as of the vitellogenins, indicating that nothepsin may be involved in processing vitellogenin or other egg-yolk proteins. We find that platypus has retained a single vitellogenin gene and pseudogene, whereas sauropsids such as chicken have three and the viviparous marsupials and eutherians have none. == Orthologues of many of the eutherian sperm membrane proteins related to fertilization40 are present in platypus (and marsupial) genomes. These include the genes for a number of putative zona pellucida receptors and proteins implicated in sperm-oolemma fusion. Testis-specific proteases, which in eutherians participate in degradation of the zona pellucida during fertilization, are all absent from the platypus genome assembly. Monotreme spermatozoa undergo some post-testicular maturational changes, including the acquisition of progressive motility, loss of cytoplasmic droplets and aggregation of single spermatozoa into bundles during passage through the epididymis11. Nevertheless, maturational changes in the sperm surface that are both unique and essential in other mammals for fertilization of the ovum have yet to be identified. Also, the epididymis of monotremes is not highly adapted for sperm storage as in most marsupial and eutherian mammals. Consistent with these findings is the absence of platypus genes for the epididymal-specific proteins that have been implicated in sperm maturation and storage in other mammals. The most abundant secreted protein in the platypus epididymis is a lipocalin, the homologues of which are the most secreted proteins in the reptilian epididymis41. Notably, ADAM7, a protease that is secreted in the epididymis of eutherians, has an orthologue in the platypus. This is a bona fide protease with a characteristic Zn2+-coordinating sequence HExxH in the platypus, in the opossum and the tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri). However, loss of its proteolytic activity is predicted in eutherians42 owing to a single point mutation within its active site (E to Q). == Lactation is an ancient reproductive trait whose origin predates the origin of mammals. It has been proposed that early lactation evolved as a water source to protect porous parchment-shelled eggs from desiccation during incubation43 or as a protection against microbial infection. Parchment-shelled egg-laying monotremes also exhibit a more ancestral glandular mammary patch or areola without a nipple that may still possess roles in egg protection. However, in common with all mammals, the milk of monotremes has evolved beyond primitive egg protection into a true milk that is a rich secretion containing sugars, lipids and milk proteins with nutritional, anti-microbial and bioactive functions. In a reflection of this eutherian similarity platypus casein genes are tightly clustered together in the genome, as they are in other mammals, although platypus contains a recently duplicated -casein gene (Supplementary Fig. 2). Mammalian casein genes are thought to have originally arisen by duplication of either enamelin or ameloblastin44, both of which are tooth enamel matrix protein genes that are located adjacent to the casein gene cluster in eutherians and, we find, also in platypus. Adult platypuses, as well as echidnas, lack teeth but the conservation of these enamel protein genes is consistent with the presence of teeth and enamel in the juvenile, as well as the fossil platypuses45.