Which joint enables you to move your arms free?

Answer 1

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of 270 bones at birth[1][2][3] - this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 30. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage and the skull. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the pectoral girdles, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

The human skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of ions and endocrine regulation.

The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelves exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. The pelvis in female skeletons is also different from that of males in order to facilitate child birth.

Contents[hide]

• 1 Divisions
  • 1.1 Axial skeleton
  • 1.2 Appendicular skeleton
• 2 Functions
  • 2.1 Support
  • 2.2 Movement
  • 2.3 Protection
  • 2.4 Blood cell production
  • 2.5 Storage
  • 2.6 Endocrine regulation
• 3 Gender differences
  • 3.1 Skull
  • 3.2 Dentition
  • 3.3 Long bones
  • 3.4 Pelvis
• 4 Disorders
  • 4.1 Osteoporosis
• 5 References

DivisionsAxial skeletonMain article: Axial skeleton

The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32-34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).

The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erectors spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.

A human is able to survive with just the axial portion of their skeleton.

Appendicular skeletonMain article: Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.

FunctionsA human skeleton on exhibit at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

The skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

SupportThe skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse. MovementThe joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system. ProtectionThe skeleton protects many vital organs:

• The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears.
• The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
• The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
• The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder.
• The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip.
• The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively.
• The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively.

Blood cell productionThe skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[4] StorageThe bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon. Endocrine regulationBone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.[5] Gender differencesAnatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelves (sing. pelvis) are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. SkullA variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the nuchal crest, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and mental eminence.[6] DentitionHuman inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canines, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes. Long bonesLong bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses. PelvisHuman pelves exhibit greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[7] DisordersSee also: Bone disease

There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.

OsteoporosisMain article: Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disease of bone, which leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture.[8] Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is craned steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP).

Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can also be prevented with having a good source of calcium and vitamin D. Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments.

ReferencesLibrary resources about

Skeletal system

• Resources in your library

1. Jump up ^ Miller, Larry (2007-12-09). "We're Born With 300 Bones. As Adults We Have 206". Ground Report.
2. Jump up ^ "How many bones does the human body contain?". Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-08-08. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
3. Jump up ^ Exploring our human bodies. San Diego Supercomputer Center Education
4. Jump up ^ Fernández, KS; de Alarcón, PA (Dec 2013). "Development of the hematopoietic system and disorders of hematopoiesis that present during infancy and early childhood.". Pediatric clinics of North America 60 (6): 1273-89. PMID 24237971. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
5. Jump up ^ Lee, Na Kyung; Sowa, Hideaki; Hinoi, Eiichi; Ferron, Mathieu; Ahn, Jong Deok; Confavreux, Cyrille; Dacquin, Romain; Mee, Patrick J.; McKee, Marc D.; Jung, Dae Young; Zhang, Zhiyou; Kim, Jason K.; Mauvais-Jarvis, Franck; Ducy, Patricia; Karsenty, Gerard (2007). "Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton". Cell 130 (3): 456-69. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047. PMC 2013746. PMID 17693256.
6. Jump up ^ Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey. p. 208.
7. Jump up ^ Phenice, T. W. (1969). "A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 30 (2): 297-301. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214. PMID 5772048.
8. Jump up ^ Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group. Technical Report Series 843. World Health Organization. 1994. ISBN 92-4-120843-0. PMID 7941614. [page needed]

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Human systems and organsTA 2-4:

MSSkeletal system

• Bone
  • Carpus
  • Collar bone (clavicle)
  • Thigh bone (femur)
  • Fibula
  • Humerus
  • Mandible
  • Metacarpus
  • Metatarsus
  • Ossicles
  • Patella
  • Phalanges
  • Radius
  • Skull (cranium)
  • Tarsus
  • Tibia
  • Ulna
  • Rib
  • Vertebra
  • Pelvis
  • Sternum
• Cartilage

Joints

• Fibrous joint
• Cartilaginous joint
• Synovial joint

Muscular system

• Muscle
• Tendon
• Diaphragm

TA 5-11:

splanchnic/

viscusmostly

Thoracic

Respiratory system

• URT
  • Nose
  • Nasopharynx
  • Larynx
• LRT
  • Trachea
  • Bronchus
  • Lung

mostly

Abdominopelvic

Digestive system+

adnexa

• Mouth
  • Salivary gland
  • Tongue
• upper GI
  • Oropharynx
  • Laryngopharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
• lower GI
  • Small intestine
  • Appendix
  • Colon
  • Rectum
  • Anus
• accessory
  • Liver
  • Biliary tract
  • Pancreas

GU: Urinary system

• Kidney
• Ureter
• Bladder
• Urethra

GU: Reproductive system

• Female
  • Uterus
  • Vagina
  • Vulva
  • Ovary
  • Placenta
• Male
  • Scrotum
  • Penis
  • Prostate
  • Testicle
  • Seminal vesicle

Endocrine system

• Pituitary
• Pineal
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
• Islets of Langerhans

TA 12-16Circulatory system

Cardiovascular system

• peripheral
  • Artery
  • Vein
  • Lymphatic vessel
• Heart

Lymphatic system

• primary
  • Bone marrow
  • Thymus
• secondary
  • Spleen
  • Lymph node
• CNS equivalent
  • Glymphatic system

Nervous system

• • Brain
  • Spinal cord
  • Nerve
• Sensory system
  • Ear
  • Eye

Integumentary system

• Skin
• Subcutaneous tissue
• Breast
  • Mammary gland

Blood

(Non-TA)Myeloid

• Myeloid immune system

Lymphoid

• Lymphoid immune system

General anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs[show]

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Bones (TA A02, GA 2)AxialVertebral column

• vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar)
• sacrum
• coccyx

Thoracic skeleton

• sternum
• rib

Skull

Neurocranium

• occipital
• parietal
• frontal
• temporal
• sphenoid
• ethmoid

Facial bones

• nasal
• maxilla
• lacrimal
• zygomatic
• palatine
• inferior nasal conchae
• vomer
• mandible
• THROAT: hyoid (greater cornu, lesser cornu, body)

Ossicles

• malleus
• incus
• stapes

AppendicularUpper

• SHOULDER GIRDLE: clavicle
• scapula
• ARM: humerus
• ulna
• radius
• HAND: carpals (scaphoid, lunate bone, triquetral, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate)
• metacarpals
• phalanges (prox, int, dist)

Lower

• PELVIS: pelvis (ilium, ischium, pubis)
• LEG: femur
• patella
• fibula
• tibia
• FOOT: tarsals (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiform, cuboid)
• metatarsals
• phalanges (prox, int, dist)

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Bones of head and neck: the facial skeleton of the skull (TA A02.1.08-15, GA 2.156-177)MaxillaSurfaces

• Anterior: fossae (Incisive fossa, Canine fossa)
• Infraorbital foramen
• Anterior nasal spine

• Infratemporal: Alveolar canals
• Maxillary tuberosity

• Orbital: Infraorbital groove
• Infraorbital canal

• Nasal: Greater palatine canal

Processes

• Zygomatic process
• Frontal process (Agger nasi, Anterior lacrimal crest)
• Alveolar process
• Palatine process (Incisive foramen, Incisive canals, Foramina of Scarpa, Incisive bone, Anterior nasal spine)

Other

• Body of maxilla
• Maxillary sinus

Zygomatic

• Orbital process (Zygomatico-orbital)
• Temporal process (Zygomaticotemporal)
• Lateral process (Zygomaticofacial)

PalatineFossae

• Pterygopalatine fossa
• Pterygoid fossa

Plates

• Horizontal plate (Posterior nasal spine)
• Perpendicular plate (Greater palatine canal, Sphenopalatine foramen, Pyramidal process)

Processes

• Orbital
• Sphenoidal

MandibleBody

• external surface (Symphysis menti, Lingual foramen, Mental protuberance, Mental foramen, Mandibular incisive canal)
• internal surface (Mental spine, Mylohyoid line, Sublingual fovea, Submandibular fovea)
• Alveolar part of mandible

Ramus

• Mylohyoid groove (Mandibular canal, Lingula)
• Mandibular foramen
• Angle
• Coronoid process
• Mandibular notch
• Condyloid process
• Pterygoid fovea

Minor/

nose

• Nasal bone: Internasal suture
• Nasal foramina
• Inferior nasal concha: Ethmoidal process
• Maxillary process
• Vomer: Vomer anterior
• Synostosis vomerina
• Vomer posterior (Wing)
• Lacrimal: Posterior lacrimal crest
• Lacrimal groove
• Lacrimal hamulus

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Bones of head and neck: the neurocranium of the skull (TA A02.1.01-07, GA 2.129-155)OccipitalSquama

• external
  • Inion/External occipital protuberance
  • External occipital crest
  • Nuchal lines
• planes
  • Occipital
  • Nuchal
• internal
  • Cruciform eminence
  • Internal occipital protuberance
  • Sagittal sulcus
  • Internal occipital crest
  • Groove for transverse sinus

Lateral parts

• Condyle
  • Condyloid fossa
  • Condylar canal
• Hypoglossal canal
• jugular
  • Jugular process
  • Jugular tubercle

Basilar part

• Pharyngeal tubercle
• Clivus

Other

• Foramen magnum
  • Basion
  • Opisthion

Parietal

• Parietal eminence
• Temporal line
• Parietal foramen
• Sagittal sulcus

FrontalSquama

• Frontal suture
• Frontal eminence
• external
  • Superciliary arches
  • Glabella
• foramina
  • Supraorbital
  • Cecum
• Zygomatic process
• internal
  • Sagittal sulcus
  • Frontal crest

Orbital part

• Ethmoidal notch
• Fossa for lacrimal gland
• Trochlear fovea
• Frontal sinus
• Frontonasal duct

TemporalSquama

• Articular tubercle
• Suprameatal triangle
• Mandibular fossa
• Petrotympanic fissure
• Zygomatic process

Mastoid part

• Mastoid foramen
• Mastoid process (Mastoid cells)
• Mastoid notch
• Occipital groove
• Sigmoid sulcus
• Mastoid antrum (Aditus)

Petrous part

• Carotid canal
• Facial canal (Hiatus)
• Internal auditory meatus
• Cochlear aqueduct
• Stylomastoid foramen
• fossae
  • Subarcuate fossa
  • Jugular fossa
• canaliculi
  • Inferior tympanic
  • Mastoid
• Styloid process
• Petrosquamous suture
• (note: ossicles in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone)

Tympanic part

• Suprameatal spine

SphenoidSurfaces

• Superior surface: Sella turcica
  • Dorsum sellae
  • Tuberculum sellae
  • Hypophysial fossa
  • Posterior clinoid processes
• Ethmoidal spine
• Chiasmatic groove
• Middle clinoid process
• Petrosal process
• Clivus
• Lateral surface: Carotid groove
• Sphenoidal lingula
• Anterior surface: Sphenoidal sinuses

Great wings

• foramina
  • Rotundum
  • Ovale
  • Vesalii
  • Spinosum
• Spine
• Infratemporal crest
• Sulcus for auditory tube

Small wings

• Superior orbital fissure
• Anterior clinoid process
• Optic canal

Pterygoid

processes

• fossae
  • Pterygoid
  • Scaphoid
• pterygoid plates
  • Lateral
  • Medial
• Pterygoid canal
• Hamulus

Other

• Body
• Sphenoidal conchae

EthmoidPlates

• Cribriform plate
  • Crista galli
  • Olfactory foramina
• Perpendicular plate

Surfaces

• Lateral surface Orbital lamina
• Uncinate process
• Medial surface Superior nasal concha
• Superior meatus
• Middle nasal concha
• Middle meatus

Labyrinth

• Ethmoid sinus
• ethmoidal foramina
  • Posterior
  • Anterior

M: BON/CAR

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Bones of head and neck: compound structures of skull (TA A02.1.00.002-052, GA 2.178-199)Neurocranium

• Calvaria (Diploë)
• Asterion
• Pterion
• Stephanion
• Inion
• Bregma
• Lambda
• Fossae: anterior cranial fossa
• middle cranial fossa
• posterior cranial fossa
• cranial cavity
• Base of skull
• Fontanelles: anterior
• posterior
• sphenoidal
• mastoid

Facial skeleton

• Nasion
• Gonion

Both

• dacryon
• zygomatic arch
• temporal fossa
• infratemporal fossa
• pterygomaxillary fissure
• pterygopalatine fossa

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Bones of upper limbs (TA A02.4, GA 2.200-230)Pectoral girdle, clavicle

• conoid tubercle
• trapezoid line
• costal tuberosity
• subclavian groove

Scapula

• fossae (subscapular, supraspinatous, infraspinatous)
• notches (suprascapular, great scapular)
• glenoid cavity
• tubercles (infraglenoid, supraglenoid)
• spine of scapula
• acromion
• coracoid process
• borders (superior, lateral/axillary, medial/vertebral)
• angles (superior, inferior, lateral)

Humerus

• upper extremity: necks (anatomical, surgical)
• tubercles (greater, lesser)
• intertubercular sulcus
• body: radial sulcus
• deltoid tuberosity
• lower extremity: capitulum
• trochlea
• epicondyles (lateral, medial)
• supracondylar ridges (lateral, medial)
• fossae (radial, coronoid, olecranon)

Forearm

• radius: upper extremity (head, tuberosity)
• body
• lower extremity (ulnar notch, styloid process, Lister's tubercle)
• ulna: upper extremity (tuberosity, olecranon, coronoid process, radial notch, trochlear notch)
• body
• lower extremity (head, styloid process)

Hand

• carpus: scaphoid
• lunate
• triquetral
• pisiform
• trapezium
• trapezoid
• capitate
• hamate (hamulus)
• metacarpus: 1st metacarpal
• 2nd
• 3rd
• 4th
• 5th
• phalanges of the hand: proximal
• intermediate
• distal

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Bones of torso (TA A02.2,3, GA 2.96-128)VertebraGeneral structures

• body of vertebra
• vertebral arch (pedicle, lamina, vertebral notch)
• foramina (vertebral, intervertebral)
• processes (transverse, articular/zygapophysis, spinous)
• spinal canal

Cervical vertebrae

• Uncinate process of vertebra
• Transverse foramen
• Anterior tubercle
• Carotid tubercle
• Posterior tubercle
• C1 (lateral mass, anterior arch, posterior arch)
• C2 (dens)
• C3, C4, C5, C6
• C7

Thoracic vertebrae

• T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, T12
• costal facets (superior, inferior, transverse)
• Uncinate process of vertebra

Lumbar vertebrae

• L1, L2, L3, L4, L5
• processes (accessory, mammillary)

Sacrum

• Base: sacral promontory
• ala of sacrum
• Lateral surface: sacral tuberosity
• pelvic surface (anterior sacral foramina)
• Dorsal surface: posterior sacral foramina
• median sacral crest
• medial sacral crest
• lateral sacral crest
• sacral canal (sacral hiatus)

Coccyx

• Coccygeal cornu

Thoracic skeletonRib

• specific ribs (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, True ribs, False ribs, Floating rib)
• parts (Angle, Tubercle, Costal groove, Neck, Head)

Sternum

• Suprasternal notch
• Manubrium
• Sternal angle
• Body of sternum
• Xiphisternal joint
• Xiphoid process

Thoracic cage

• Superior thoracic aperture
• Inferior thoracic aperture
• Intercostal space
• Costal margin
• Infrasternal angle

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Bones of lower limbs (TA A02.5.04-18, GA 2.242-277)Femurupper extremity

• head
  • fovea
• neck
• greater trochanter
  • trochanteric fossa
• lesser trochanter
• intertrochanteric line
• intertrochanteric crest
• quadrate tubercle

body

• linea aspera
• gluteal tuberosity / third trochanter
• pectineal line

lower extremity

• adductor tubercle
• patellar surface
• epicondyles
  • lateral
  • medial
• condyles
  • lateral
  • medial
• intercondylar fossa

CrusTibia

upper extremity

• Gerdy's tubercle
• condyles
  • lateral
  • medial
• intercondylar eminence
  • lateral/medial intercondylar tubercle
• posterior/anterior intercondylar area

body

• tuberosity
• soleal line

lower extremity

• medial malleolus
• fibular notch

Fibula

• head
• body
• lateral malleolus

Other

• patella
  • apex of patella

FootTarsus

• calcaneus
  • sustentaculum tali
  • trochlear process
• talus
  • body
  • neck
  • head
• navicular
• cuboid
• cuneiform
  • medial
  • intermediate
  • lateral

Metatarsus

• 1st metatarsal
• 2nd
• 3rd
• 4th
• 5th

Other

phalanges of the foot

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Bones of pelvis / pelvic cavity (TA A02.5.01-03, GA 2.231-241)General

• sacrum
• coccyx
• hip bone

Iliumbody

• arcuate line

winggluteal lines

• posterior
• anterior
• inferior

iliac spines

• anterior superior
• anterior inferior
• posterior superior
• posterior inferior

other:

• crest
• tuberosity
• tubercle
• fossa

Ischiumbody

• ischial spine
• lesser sciatic notch

superior ramus

• tuberosity of the ischium

inferior ramus

• no substructures

Pubisbody

• pubic crest

superior ramus

• pubic tubercle
• obturator crest

inferior ramus

• pectineal line

Compound

• acetabulum
  • acetabular notch
• iliopubic eminence / iliopectineal line
• linea terminalis
• ischiopubic ramus / pubic arch

• obturator foramen
• greater sciatic foramen / greater sciatic notch
• lesser sciatic foramen

• lesser pelvis
  • pelvic inlet
  • pelvic brim
  • pelvic outlet
• greater pelvis

M: BON/CAR

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Answer 2

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