There is no one hechsher that is accepted by all Orthodox communities. Some communities accept the Triangle K hechsher while others don't.
Reform, Recostructionist, Conservative, Orthodox, Ultra Orthodox
All the time.
Acceptance of someone into a Jewish community has nothing to do with race.
In between the Orthodox and Reform Jewish communities is the Conservative movement, although, the Conservative movement is closer to Orthodox than Reform.
Orthodox just means traditionally accepted. It can be used in any religion. In Judaism it refers to Traditional Jews.
90% of the population is Catholic. There are also Protestant, Orthodox, Jewish and Muslim communities.
Within Israel, it is not permitted. Outside of Israel, it is only followed as a custom in orthodox communities.
Yes, frequently, unless they live in segregated communities where they rarely encounter non-Jews.
It's a Jewish organization that supports Modern Orthodox Jewish life.
No, it is part of The Orthodox Church (Christianity), and it is not Jewish. In fact, there is no such thing as a Jewish church.
Under traditional Jewish law, Jewishness is inherited through the mother so that only children of Jewish mothers are considered to be Jewish. As a result, a Jewish man who wants his children to be accepted in a traditional Jewish community will seek to marry only a Jewish woman. Some of the more liberal Jewish communities now accept the children of Jewish fathers as Jewish when they are raised in the Jewish faith. In addition, there have always been processes through which non-Jews an convert to Judaism. This would permit a non-Jewish woman to convert, marry a Jewish man and have their children recognized as Jewish in traditional communities. It also permits the children of a non-Jewish mother to be raised and accepted as Jews even in traditional communities. In Judaism there's no such thing as "half-Jewish."
Shaina (שיינה) is a Yiddish word, meaning 'pretty'. It is related to the German word "Schön". It's mainly used within the Orthodox community, but you do find it in non-Orthodox communities as well. Other Jewish communities will use the Hebrew equivalent Yaffa (יפה) or Yafit (יפית) when naming their daughter after a 'Shaina'