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Almost immediately following the end of World War II, Americans began to question the use of the atomic bomb and the circumstances surrounding the end of the Pacific War. More than half a century later, books and articles on the atomic bomb still provoke storms of debate among readers and the use of atomic weapons remains a sharply contested subject. As the 1995 controversy over the Enola Gay exhibit at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum revealed, the issues connected with the dropping of the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki continue to touch a sensitive nerve in Americans. Among scholars, disagreement remains no less heated. But, on the whole, this debate has been strangely parochial, centering almost exclusively on how the U.S. leadership made the decision to drop the bombs.
There are two distinct gaps in this historiography. First, with regard to the atomic bombs, as Asada Sadao in Japan correctly observes, American historians have concentrated on the "motives" behind the use of atomic bombs, but "they have slighted the effects of the bomb." Second, although historians have been aware of the decisive influence of both the atomic bombs and the Soviet entry into the war, they have largely sidestepped the Soviet factor, relegating it to sideshow status.
A series of counterfactual hypotheses can help clarify the question of which factor, the atomic bombs or Soviet entry into the war, had the more decisive effect on Japan's decision to surrender. We might ask, in particular, whether Japan would have surrendered before November 1, the scheduled date for the start of Operation Olympic, the U.S. invasion of Kyushu, given neither the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki nor Soviet entry into the war; Soviet entry alone, without the atomic bombings; or the atomic bombings alone, without Soviet entry.
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What are the benefits of atomic bombs?
The reasoning that developed in the 1950s at the beginning of the cold war was a nuclear weapon cost a small fraction of a division of troops yet could substitute effectively for it. This eventually allowed Eisenhower to reduce US military manpower significantly, as our stockpile grew. When damage from atomic bombs was first considered, our congress and the public were deeply impressed by pictures of genetic monsters in fruit flies which had received excessive doses of ionizing radiation. This started radiation hysteria, provided abundant money for research on harm from ionizing radiation, and effectively stopped support for research on the benefits of low dose irradiation (Brucer, 1990). Excess radiation did cause radiation sickness and death in Japanese victims of atomic bombs. However, no genetic monsters were found in children from exposed parents. After half a century of study, no statistically significant effects were found in congenital defects, stillbirth, leukemia, cancer, offspring death rates, sex ratio, growth and development during childhood, chromosomal aneuploidy and translocations, or mutations. An exquisitely sensitive test was preformed for point mutations of DNA as reflected in serum proteins. No effect was found in 298,868 individual tests in children exposed to a variety of different doses of ionizing radiation from atomic bombs (Neel et al., 1980, Schull et al. 1981). Data from the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) in Hiroshima showed that lightly exposed fetuses had fewer phenotypic abnormalities than were found in controls (fig. 1) (Schull et al., 1981). When compared with the control population, Schull and associates noted that Japanese children born from mothers exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation had fewer stillbirths, congenital effects, and neonatal deaths. The threshold (ZEP is the zero equivalent point) was about 100 cGy to the ovary. These results were obtained when exposures of the fathers was <10 cGy.
What were the injuries after the atomic bombing?
A-bomb survivors at Hiroshima and Nagasaki PTI FEATURE VOL NO XXIV (32)-2008 August 09, 2008 INTERNATIONAL PF-125/2008 A-bomb survivors at Hiroshima and Nagasaki By Dr.K.S.Parthasarathy As on March 31, 2007, 2,51,834 persons with an average age of 74.6 years, have received official "hibakusha" (known as A-bomb victims) health cards as atomic bomb survivors, but only 2200 of them have been certified as suffering from radiation-related diseases. On 6th August 1945, exactly 63 years ago, an atom bomb destroyed Hiroshima. Three days later, Nagasaki faced a similar fate. These cities then had an estimated population of 310,000 and 250,000 respectively. About 90,000- 140,000 in Hiroshima and 60,000- 80,000 people in Nagasaki died immediately or within two to four months after bombing, resulting from collapse of houses caused by the blast and from heat rays and fires and radiation exposure. As on March 31, 2007, 2,51,834 persons with an average age of 74.6 years, have received official "hibakusha" (known as A-bomb victims) health cards as atomic bomb survivors, but only 2200 of them have been certified as suffering from radiation-related diseases (The Asahi Shimbun, June 26, 2008). On June 24, a Nagasaki court ruled that 20 survivors deserve recognition as sufferers of radiation-caused illnesses, including those who do not meet the government's new certification standards. The sufferers to be certified according to the court were those with chronic hepatitis, cirrohosis of the liver, articular ailments and disorders resulting from embedded pieces of glass and other foreign objects; these people are entitled to receive 137,000 yen monthly in special medical benefits. The Japanese Central government lost several cases, the latest was the 9th loss in the series. Government's new standards issued this April, will certify people who were exposed to radiation within 3.5 km of ground zero and consequently developed any one of the designated diseases(cancer, leukemia, irradiation cataracts, hyperparathyroidism and radiation induced heart infarction) . On July 19, this year, the Osaka District Court recognized four people as suffering from radiation illnesses caused by atomic bombings (The Yomiuri Shimbun, April 19, 2008). There were 11 claimants. Several suits for recognition as atomic bomb sufferers are being pursued in different courts. The process is painfully slow. Over an estimated 5000 atomic survivors living abroad did not receive any relief so far, though two court rulings in (Osaka and Nagasaki respectively) offered some hopes for them. What is the current status of radiation health studies of A-bomb survivors in Japan? Many believe in the myth that birth defects are more common among the children of the survivors of the atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Physicians appointed by Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) did not see statistically demonstrable increase in major birth defects in 76,626 infants conceived and born in Hiroshima and Nagasaki over a period of six years starting from the late spring of 1948. Pregnant women had special provisions for certain dietary staples. Because of this, the surveyors of new-borns could identify 90 per cent of the pregnancies that persisted for at least 20 weeks of gestation. Physical examination of the new born and autopsies on as many stillborn infants revealed that neither the frequency of major birth defects nor the frequency of the most common birth defects differ significantly with radiation exposure of parents. The researchers examined some 21,788 infants shortly after birth and re-examined them eight to ten months later. The study covered 65,431 registered pregnancy terminations and appropriate control populations. "The absence of a statistically significant effect of ionizing radiation on the frequency of major birth defects should not be construed as evidence that mutations were not induced by parental exposure to atomic radiation", Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), the successor of ABCC cautioned. The researchers saw mutations in every animal and plant species studied. The magnitude of a difference between two or more groups that can be detected statistically depends upon the number of observations made and on the natural frequency of the event under scrutiny as well as the difference between the groups resulting from exposure. The RERF study had the statistical power to detect a doubling of the rate of major congenital malformations, if such defects had occurred. Long term study of the survivors of the atom bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki showed that high radiation exposures caused excess cancer in the exposed individuals. In 2007, scientists estimated that about 850 out of 17,448 solid cancers recorded during 1958 through 1998 may be due to radiation exposure. Radiation is thus shown to be a weak carcinogen. Studies on 1600 children who were irradiated while they were in their mother's womb during the atomic bomb explosions in the two cities revealed that 30 of them suffered clinically severe mental retardation. Between 0 and 7 weeks post conception mental development was not affected. Between 8 and 15 weeks the sensitivity for mental retardation was maximum. This is possibly because neuronal proliferation and cell migration in the cortex is most active during this period. From 15 weeks to 25 weeks the incidence of mental retardation was clearly lower. Generally mental retardation depended on radiation dose. There was no detectable threshold dose below which the effect was zero. But a threshold of 100 milligray cannot be ruled out. (milligray is a unit of radiation dose; the skin dose in some medical x-ray examinations can be as high as 1 milligray). RERF studies suggest that there may be a small radiation associated increase in the risk of death for diseases such as myocardial infarction, chronic liver disease, thyroid diseases and uterine myoma among A-bomb survivors. There is some evidence that radiation caused an increase in cancer deaths among survivors who got exposed in their mothers' wombs. The number of such deaths is still small. International organisations use the RERF data derived from the study of A- bomb survivors to establish radiation protection guidelines for radiation workers and the general populations. Whether low level radiation exposure will cause harmful effects in humans has not been demonstrated conclusively. Irrefutable evidence on the harmful effects, if any, due to low levels of radiation exposure is unlikely to emerge in the near future. Evidently, it is prudent to reduce all radiation exposures to, as low a value as is reasonably achievable.
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Rerf
What are the benefits of atomic bombs?
The reasoning that developed in the 1950s at the beginning of the cold war was a nuclear weapon cost a small fraction of a division of troops yet could substitute effectively for it. This eventually allowed Eisenhower to reduce US military manpower significantly, as our stockpile grew. When damage from atomic bombs was first considered, our congress and the public were deeply impressed by pictures of genetic monsters in fruit flies which had received excessive doses of ionizing radiation. This started radiation hysteria, provided abundant money for research on harm from ionizing radiation, and effectively stopped support for research on the benefits of low dose irradiation (Brucer, 1990). Excess radiation did cause radiation sickness and death in Japanese victims of atomic bombs. However, no genetic monsters were found in children from exposed parents. After half a century of study, no statistically significant effects were found in congenital defects, stillbirth, leukemia, cancer, offspring death rates, sex ratio, growth and development during childhood, chromosomal aneuploidy and translocations, or mutations. An exquisitely sensitive test was preformed for point mutations of DNA as reflected in serum proteins. No effect was found in 298,868 individual tests in children exposed to a variety of different doses of ionizing radiation from atomic bombs (Neel et al., 1980, Schull et al. 1981). Data from the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) in Hiroshima showed that lightly exposed fetuses had fewer phenotypic abnormalities than were found in controls (fig. 1) (Schull et al., 1981). When compared with the control population, Schull and associates noted that Japanese children born from mothers exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation had fewer stillbirths, congenital effects, and neonatal deaths. The threshold (ZEP is the zero equivalent point) was about 100 cGy to the ovary. These results were obtained when exposures of the fathers was <10 cGy.
What were the injuries after the atomic bombing?
A-bomb survivors at Hiroshima and Nagasaki PTI FEATURE VOL NO XXIV (32)-2008 August 09, 2008 INTERNATIONAL PF-125/2008 A-bomb survivors at Hiroshima and Nagasaki By Dr.K.S.Parthasarathy As on March 31, 2007, 2,51,834 persons with an average age of 74.6 years, have received official "hibakusha" (known as A-bomb victims) health cards as atomic bomb survivors, but only 2200 of them have been certified as suffering from radiation-related diseases. On 6th August 1945, exactly 63 years ago, an atom bomb destroyed Hiroshima. Three days later, Nagasaki faced a similar fate. These cities then had an estimated population of 310,000 and 250,000 respectively. About 90,000- 140,000 in Hiroshima and 60,000- 80,000 people in Nagasaki died immediately or within two to four months after bombing, resulting from collapse of houses caused by the blast and from heat rays and fires and radiation exposure. As on March 31, 2007, 2,51,834 persons with an average age of 74.6 years, have received official "hibakusha" (known as A-bomb victims) health cards as atomic bomb survivors, but only 2200 of them have been certified as suffering from radiation-related diseases (The Asahi Shimbun, June 26, 2008). On June 24, a Nagasaki court ruled that 20 survivors deserve recognition as sufferers of radiation-caused illnesses, including those who do not meet the government's new certification standards. The sufferers to be certified according to the court were those with chronic hepatitis, cirrohosis of the liver, articular ailments and disorders resulting from embedded pieces of glass and other foreign objects; these people are entitled to receive 137,000 yen monthly in special medical benefits. The Japanese Central government lost several cases, the latest was the 9th loss in the series. Government's new standards issued this April, will certify people who were exposed to radiation within 3.5 km of ground zero and consequently developed any one of the designated diseases(cancer, leukemia, irradiation cataracts, hyperparathyroidism and radiation induced heart infarction) . On July 19, this year, the Osaka District Court recognized four people as suffering from radiation illnesses caused by atomic bombings (The Yomiuri Shimbun, April 19, 2008). There were 11 claimants. Several suits for recognition as atomic bomb sufferers are being pursued in different courts. The process is painfully slow. Over an estimated 5000 atomic survivors living abroad did not receive any relief so far, though two court rulings in (Osaka and Nagasaki respectively) offered some hopes for them. What is the current status of radiation health studies of A-bomb survivors in Japan? Many believe in the myth that birth defects are more common among the children of the survivors of the atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Physicians appointed by Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) did not see statistically demonstrable increase in major birth defects in 76,626 infants conceived and born in Hiroshima and Nagasaki over a period of six years starting from the late spring of 1948. Pregnant women had special provisions for certain dietary staples. Because of this, the surveyors of new-borns could identify 90 per cent of the pregnancies that persisted for at least 20 weeks of gestation. Physical examination of the new born and autopsies on as many stillborn infants revealed that neither the frequency of major birth defects nor the frequency of the most common birth defects differ significantly with radiation exposure of parents. The researchers examined some 21,788 infants shortly after birth and re-examined them eight to ten months later. The study covered 65,431 registered pregnancy terminations and appropriate control populations. "The absence of a statistically significant effect of ionizing radiation on the frequency of major birth defects should not be construed as evidence that mutations were not induced by parental exposure to atomic radiation", Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), the successor of ABCC cautioned. The researchers saw mutations in every animal and plant species studied. The magnitude of a difference between two or more groups that can be detected statistically depends upon the number of observations made and on the natural frequency of the event under scrutiny as well as the difference between the groups resulting from exposure. The RERF study had the statistical power to detect a doubling of the rate of major congenital malformations, if such defects had occurred. Long term study of the survivors of the atom bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki showed that high radiation exposures caused excess cancer in the exposed individuals. In 2007, scientists estimated that about 850 out of 17,448 solid cancers recorded during 1958 through 1998 may be due to radiation exposure. Radiation is thus shown to be a weak carcinogen. Studies on 1600 children who were irradiated while they were in their mother's womb during the atomic bomb explosions in the two cities revealed that 30 of them suffered clinically severe mental retardation. Between 0 and 7 weeks post conception mental development was not affected. Between 8 and 15 weeks the sensitivity for mental retardation was maximum. This is possibly because neuronal proliferation and cell migration in the cortex is most active during this period. From 15 weeks to 25 weeks the incidence of mental retardation was clearly lower. Generally mental retardation depended on radiation dose. There was no detectable threshold dose below which the effect was zero. But a threshold of 100 milligray cannot be ruled out. (milligray is a unit of radiation dose; the skin dose in some medical x-ray examinations can be as high as 1 milligray). RERF studies suggest that there may be a small radiation associated increase in the risk of death for diseases such as myocardial infarction, chronic liver disease, thyroid diseases and uterine myoma among A-bomb survivors. There is some evidence that radiation caused an increase in cancer deaths among survivors who got exposed in their mothers' wombs. The number of such deaths is still small. International organisations use the RERF data derived from the study of A- bomb survivors to establish radiation protection guidelines for radiation workers and the general populations. Whether low level radiation exposure will cause harmful effects in humans has not been demonstrated conclusively. Irrefutable evidence on the harmful effects, if any, due to low levels of radiation exposure is unlikely to emerge in the near future. Evidently, it is prudent to reduce all radiation exposures to, as low a value as is reasonably achievable.
