What is the flow of charge through a conductor?

Answer 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The rapid decline of livestock industry in Nigeria has been the concern of government, scientists and researchers. Despite all the measures taken by the government to proffer solution to the problems, no significant improvement has been made Milked (2005).

The high cost of feed ingredient has resulted to increase cost in rabbit production. Most of the ingredients used to formulate rabbit feeds are also been consumed by man, e.g. soya beans, groundnut cake, maize etc. As a result of this, increase in feed cost and a high competition between man and rabbit, there is therefore the need to source for alternative feeds that could adequately supply nutrient and at the same time reduce cost Oyedapo(2000).

Maize grain is the major source of energy in rabbit feeds in Nigeria usually accounting for over 40% of the diet (Adegbola and Okonko 2002; Bamgbose et al 2004). There is need to search for byproduct and crop wastes with a view to findings feed supplements which can maintain physiological balance and enhance livestock productivity.

A lot of research work has been conducted in Nigeria in an effort to substitute maize with cheaper and readily available ingredient in order to reduce cost and over dependence on the feedstuff for rabbit feeding. Thus, cassava peel meal by (Agunbiade et al 2002), cassava leaf meal by Adegbola and Okwonko 2002), bread waste meal by ( Dairo et al 2005), and rumen content by( Dairo and Ojekale 2004).these have been replaced with maize in the rabbit diets with moderate result among many other similar studies. However, there is a paucity of information on the utilization of cocoa waste in rabbit.

Many agricultural byproducts can be fed to animals. Generally, byproduct to be used as feed stuffs should be economical dense in nutrients and free of toxin or other substance that may be unhealthy for the animals.

It is important to determine whether the byproduct being considered for animal feeds are appropriate to the needs and conditions of specific feeding situation. This work therefore aimed at determining the economics of production of rabbit fed maize replaced with cocoa industrial waste diet.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Origin and Distribution of Rabbit

Rabbit live in many areas around the world. More than half of the world rabbit's population resides in North America. They are native to south Western Europe, south East Asia, Sumatra, some islands of Japan and in some part of Africa and South America.

They are not naturally found in most of Europe, Asia where a number of species of hares are present. Rabbit first entered South America relatively as part of the great America interchange. Most of the continent has just one species of rabbit the Tapeti, while most of south America's, southern cone is without rabbits. The European rabbit has been introduced to many places around the world, Brown (2001).

Recently rabbits have introduced to West African countries as a farm animal of various economic importance's Brown (2001). This is because rabbit meat has been found to be nutritious. Apart from meat it also raised for wool. Rabbit's furs are used in making winter clothing's in temperate region Habitats (2009).

2.1 Non-Conventional Feed Resources Used In Animal feed to Replaced Maize.

Cocoa bean is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Threobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. They are the basis of chocolate as well as many Mesosause and Tejate (Wikipedia 2006).

A large number of agro-industrial byproduct forest waste, aquatic herbage and animal wastes which have been identified, processed and used for feeding of farm animals are designated as a group of unconventional feeds. Example includes sugar Kane, cassava chips, blood meal, corn bran, maize bran, rice bran, discarded biscuits, bakery waste, and copra cake others are citrus pulp, yeast wheat bran, distillers soluble, sugar beet pulp, brewer's grains, molasses, cocoa pod husk, cocoa industrial waste.

2.2 Agricultural By-Products and Wastes Used In Monogastric Diet.

Agricultural byproduct and wastes available for feeding monogastric animals can be divided in to three main groups based on their sources. There are those of animal, plant and industrial origin.

2.2.1 Animal by Products

These are the animal's byproducts: blood, bone, intestine, rumen content, animal hair, stomach offal, horns, hooves, carcasses of animal disqualified by the veterinary service. Dairy byproducts as well as tannery byproducts are included in this group. Animal and poultry manure which are currently used as feed ingredients can also be included in this group Kazimerz (2003).

2.2.2 By-Product of Plant Origin

By-product from milling industry examples include bran , waste flour, waste resulting from cleaning process corn and rye germs, hull of some seed e.g. peas, soya bean, oil yield rape, sun flower, flax and fatty acids.

2.2.3 By-Product from Industries

By-product from industries are brewers, yeast, bacteria, fungi, biomass, spent grain, sprout in breweries, cassava peel etc.

2.3 Economic Importance of By-Product

Generally feed accounts for up to 80% of total cost of raising animals (Ikan et al, 2001). As a result of this high cost of feed, there is need to source for alternative feed ingredients to replace the conventional one's and be able to release protein for animals.

Layers faeces a waste product from poultry contain appreciable amount of protein (21-23%) which even surpassed that of maize (9-10%), (Kazimerz, 2003). Several animals waste product, by-product from plant, industrial waste have been rendered into valuable protein supplement for partial or complete substitution for the expensive conventional feed stuffs in livestock diet without having adverse effect on performance there by reducing feed cost (Abdulmalik et al., 1994).

2.4 Nutritional value of waste and by product of cocoa.

The result of trial who reported an improvement of 7.23% in milk production compared to the control diet when 50% of cocoa shell were used in the ration of rabbit. Deflated cocoa cake, a by-product of the cocoa fermentation process, was evaluated as a direct feed in the monosex culture of Tilapia quineenis (Dumeril).

Experimental yield trails were compared with two types of controls: a locally manufactured fish diet and an unmanaged system. Survival of the fish ranged from 90.21 to 93.13%. At harvest, average net yields were 2310.00, 1707.50 and 1133.13kg/ha. From the fish diet treatment, cocoa cake treatment and unmanaged system respectively. Feed conversion values (based on dry matter inputs) averaged 5.12 and 2.30 for the fish fed the cocoa cave and fish diet, respectively. Analysis of the stomach contents of fish from the experimental pond showed that cocoa cake was utilized directly as feed (Oyedepo, 2000).

2.5 Dry Matter Content (%) And Proximate Chemical Composition (% of Dry Matter) Of Cocoa Shell

NUTRIENT COCOA SHELL COCOA DUST

DRY MATTER 97.5 94.5 CRUDE PROTEIN 16.0 13 8 CRUDE FIBRE 58.0 61.0 ETHER EXTRACT 19.0 22.0 ORGANIC MATTER 92.5 96.5 GROSS ENERGY 23.4 22.6

Mg/Kg MD

ASH 7.5 3.5

Adopted from Areghore, 2002.

2.6 Digestibility Values of Rabbit Fed Concentrates Combined With Grass and Legume

Iyeghe-Erakpotor et al.,(2005) evaluated concentrate, grass, and legume combinations on performance and nutrient digestibility of grower rabbits under tropical conditions. The results showed a high digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber and ether extract indicating that the rabbit were able to utilize nutrients in the high forage and low concentrate combinations used for growth. The unique advantage of by-product or waste product is that they are inexpensive, source of available nutrient needed by the livestock e.g. energy, protein, minerals and vitamins.

Owosibo(2008) evaluated the effect of partial replacement of maize with cocoa bean shell for growing snail for 20 weeks. There were five treatments and the diets contain 0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and10.0% cocoa bean shell in partial replacement of maize. The results showed that the shell width increment and mean weekly shell thickness increment were not affected by inclusion of cocoa bean shell in the diet of snail.

2.7 Risk Related To the Consumption of Waste and By-Product of Cocoa

Theobromine is a key anti-nutritional content (Alexander et al., 2008). Theobromine presence in the waste and by-product of cocoa could be a factor limiting their intake. Cocoa beans and shells contain theobromine an alkaloid poisonous to animals, which limits their use for feeding animals (F.A.O, 2002). The level of thobromine is very low in the cocoa pod or cocoa waste from industry which has been roasted.

Meffaja et al., (2006) reported jimson weed, seed meal which contain alkaloid toxic to animal, and cocoa shell meal which contains theobromine also toxic to animals were used in experiment with broilers to determine relative toxicity(F.A.O,2002). Pure theobromine was added to diet to furnish the same levels as furnished by 1, 2, 4 and 6% dietary. Cocoa shell meal which contained by analysis 1.3% theobromine was somewhat less toxic to chicks than furnished by cocoa shell meal.

2.8 Composition of Some Non Conventional Feedstuffs

FEEDSTUFF CRUDE PROTEIN(%) ETHER EXTRACT(%) CRUDE FIBRE (%) ENERGY kcal/kg Matter

NEEM LEAVE 17.5 4.2 12.3 752

COCOA SHELL 16.0 19.0 58.0 23.4

AMARANTH SEEDS 16.0 0.2 5.5 922

SOYA BEAN TESTSA 16.6 4.0 25.4 2096

COWPEA TESTA 17.0 2.6 20.3 1005

MELON PULP 8.6 4.3 31.1 1148

PLANTAIN PULP 4.1 0.6 0.1 1004

PALM OIL SHIDGE 9.0 31.5 12.9 GE4900

EPOS 4.3 53.2 7.5 5680

Composition of Cassava Feedstuff

FEEDSTUFF CRUDE PROTEIN (%) ETHER EXTRACT(%) CRUDE FIBRE(%) ENERGY kcal/kg Matter

MEAL SIEVING 0.8 1.5 9.0 1787

FERMENTED CHAFF 1.4 1.1 10.2 3426

PEEL MEAL 2.2 1.1 4.3 2460

YAM PEEL MEAL 6.4 5.0 7.3 1367

YAM MEAL SEIVING 3.5 1.0 5.0 2115

Composition of Maize Feedstuff

FEEDSTUFF CRUDE PROTEIN (%) ETHER EXTRACT(%) CRUDE FIBRE(%) ENERGY kcal/kg Matter

FRESH 16.8 7.8 4.2 1642

SUNDRIED 14.7 3.8 5.7 3305

OVEN DRIED WHITE 16.8 2.7 6.0 GE4758

OVEN DRIED YELLOW 17.2 5.2 6.5 GE4780

MILLET 18.0 7.3 6.5 GE4417

SORGHUM 29.4 9.5 8.2 GE5474

Composition of Blood Meal Mixture

FEEDSTUFF CRUDE PROTEIN (%) ETHER EXTRACT(%) CRUDE FIBRE(%) ENERGY kcal/kg Matter

RICE BRAN/BLOOD 25.6 - 21.3 -

MAIZE COB/BLOOD 28.9 - 19.5 -

PKC/BLOOD 38.5 5.0 - -

FISH BYPRODUCT 44.3 29.1 0.0 GE055

Soniya E.B (1989)

Key word:

EPOS = EVAPORATED PALM OIL SLUDGE

PKC = PALM KERNEL CAKE

GE = GROOS ENERGY DERTERMINED BY BOMB CALORIMETTER

2.9 Feed Ingredients Available For Rabbit in Nigeria

Rabbit have potential as a meat producing animals in the tropics to their characteristics such as small body size, short generation interval, rapid growth rate and ability to utilize forage or agricultural byproducts. the waste from products grading before selling to the market, such as vegetable waste, are utilize as feed resources for rabbit and the manure from the animals could be used as an organic fertilizer for crops Milkled (2005).

Feed ingredient available in Nigeria for feeding rabbits can be classified in to four types. Despite the fact that the list below appears in four main classes, most of these will also provide other nutrient.

ENERGY SOURCE : this include maize, cassava , guinea corn, maize brain, pito mash ,yam, potato and banana peeling s, garbage, molasses, oil palm, slurry, dried bakery waste products, dried fruit pulp and peelings, corn cob, cocoa pod husk, cocoa industrial waste and coffee pulp. E.T.C

PROTEIN SOURCE : example in this group include fishmeal, groundnut , copra cake cotton seed cake, soya bean meal, dried spent yeast, blood meal, meat meal, hatchery waste, discarded skimmed milk powder , feather meal, palm kernel meal, cassava foliage meal etc .

MINERAL SOURCE: mineral source are common salt, bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, oyster shell, calcium carbonate and commercial trace mineral supplements.

VITAMIN SOURCE: examples are fish meal, green forage, yeast, yellow maize and commercial vitamin supplements.

2.10 Recommended Chemical Composition of Feeds For Rearing Rabbits Of Different Categories.

Component of Feed Assumed To Contain (39%) young rabbit 4-12 wks lactating do Petri weaning mixed maternity fatten

Crude protein (%) 16 18 15 17

Digestive protein (%) 11.5 13.5 10.8 12.4

Methionine + cystine (%) 0.6 0.60 0.55 0.60

Lysine (%) 0.70 0.90 0.65 0.70

Arginine (%) 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.90

Threonine (%) 0.55 0.70 0.55 0.6

Kelleins and church (2006)

2.11 Wild and Cultivated Fodders Suitable For Rabbit Feed.

A part from cocoa industrial waste rabbit can also utilize wild and cultivated fodders. The following information only concern plants that have been positively tested in station feed. They are listed under their Latin names.FOA (1982)

AL YSICARPUS VAGINALIS: A one- leaf clover distributed ad lib to growing rabbit as a supplement to concentrates gave performance not significantly different from the control. This plant, grown in South America, is a good source of protein FAO (1982)

Amaranthus spp. this forage has a been tried out in Malawi to supplement a concentrate containing 39.5 percent grain maize 26 percent maize brain, 34percent groundnut oil cake and 0.5percent table salt. Reproduction and growth were satisfactory: 20 rabbits per doe per year; growth of 15g per day from four to sixteen weeks. Amaranthus is routinely fed to rabbits at the Bunda Agricultural College in Lilongwe, Malawi modern hybrid verities conventional grown feeding rabbits F.A.O (1982)

Arachis hypogaea. Groundnut oil cake is a high protein feed (50percent). It can be used for feed when not over polluted by aflatoxins. The whole groundnut can also be fed, but this puts the rabbits in to direct competition with people for food so this solution should only be consider Under exceptional circumstances . Groundnut tops provide green fodder and with a high protein content. This is the conventional use at bobo-dioulase centre in Burkina Faso. The tops can also be used after harvest, but their protein content is less; about 15 percent before the groundnuts are removed and less than 10 percent after threshing. The proteins in both the top and the groundnut cake lack the essential sulphur amino acid.

Brachiaria mutica: fed to breeding doe in the philipines, para grass has proved far more satisfactory than elephant grass (pennisetum purpureum) or guinea grass (panicum maximum).however, its low protein content (10 to 13 percent) requires a nitrogen supplement (legume, supplementary feed) (F.A.O, 1982).

Cucurbita foetidissima: growing naturally in the semi-desert area of northern Mexico, this member of the gourd family has an enormous root that is 65 percent starch. The crushed root is sun-dried in two or three days and as much as 30% can be added to the balanced concentrate in place of grain sorghum for breeding and fattening rabbits.-trials at the University of Chihuahua in Mexico demonstrated no toxic effect (FAO, 1982)

Ipomoea batatas: sweet potatoes are good sources of energy (70% starch content). For human consumption can easily be grown in a family garden. Surplus or special grown crops could be used as energy feed for rabbits. The tops when well developed are also a valuable feed because of their high protein content 16-20%. Sweet potato is used as forage for rabbits in Mauritius, Guadeloupe and Martinique, mainly backyard rabbitries. A trial in Mozambique produced a good performance with sweet potato leaves as a dietary supplement. They are highly digestible and trials in many tropical countries have confirmed the nutritional value of sweet potato tops. (FAO, 1982)

Musa spp.: rabbits can be fed on commercial banana rejects. Bananas are rich in energy and poor in protein (5or6%) and must be supplemented. Rabbit breeders used banana rejects in various African countries and in Guadeloupe and Martinique. The leaves can also be used as green forage (Cameroon, Zambia, Guadeloupe and Martinique). Their protein content is 10-11% of the dry matter. Data are available on the leaves as a rabbit feed, but not on the stems. They contain only 1.5-2% protein and with 70% nitrogen -free extract could make useful energy feed. Banana peels can also be used to replace up to 35% of the concentrate for growing rabbits. (FAO, 1982)

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Sources and Preparation of Samples

The cocoa industrial waste was collected from Ile-Oluji cocoa processing Company Ondo State. The sample was sun-dried for 2-3days.then dried samples was ground and packed in sacks and store at room temperature. Other ingredients used include: maize, soya beans, wheat offal, were purchased at Oka Akinwekomi feed mill Ondo Town. Twenty five weaned rabbits of mixed sexes were used for the experiment. The animal with an average weight of 0.8kg was randomly allocated in to five dietary treatments with six replicated. This Research Was Carried Out In Adeyemi College of Education Teaching and Research Farm. The rabbits were housed in a large wooden wire mesh cages. The cage further partitioned in to 25 separate mini cages such that each hutch consist one rabbits. The hutch was made in such a way that faeces and urine fall freely to the floor out of the reach of animal for resting or sleeping. The cage were arrange in a pen whose wall was made of block as a base and the upper part made of wire mesh to permit flow of air and ventilation as well as lightening. The pen was roofed with corrugated iron sheet.

3.2 Experimental Diets

Five experimental diets were formulated such that maize was replaced with cocoa industrial waste at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% levels.

TABLE 1: Composition of Experimental Diets in Percentage

Levels of Replacement

FEED 0 25 50 75 100

MAIZE 32.00 24.00 16.00 8.00 -

COCOA WASTE - 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00

WHEAT OFFAL 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00

CORN BRAN 27.50 27.50 27.50 27.50 27.50

SOYA BEAN MEAL 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0

PALM KERNEL 16.50 16.50 16.50 16.50 16.50

FISH MEAL 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

BORN MEAL 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50

VITAMIN PREMIX 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

SALT 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100

3.3 Feeding and Routine Management

The initial weights of the animal were taken before introducing them to their experimental diets. The experimental rabbits were offered growers pellet mash for one week which servers as adaptation week after which the animals were distributed in to their various treatments. Water and weighted feeds were offered to the rabbit twice daily at 8.00am and 4.00pm. coccidiostat ( ebazin forth) was included in their drinking water (1g 1 litre ) to prevent diarrhea and coccidiosis and it was given for 3days interval for 3weeks. Water was supplied in stainless plate and feeds in wooden container that were well constructed in order to avoid tipping over by the animals. The left over were removed every morning before new feeds and fresh water were given. The records of feed offered and left over were kept daily in order to estimate the amount of feed consumed by the rabbits per day.

The cemented floor of the pen housing the cage was clean every day for control of diseases causing micro organisms. The animals were weighed on a weekly basis throughout the duration of 8 weeks experimental period.

3.7 Data Analysis

The data collected were subjected to analysis of variance in a (completely randomized design) while different means were separated using. Duncan multiple range test with aid of statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

TABLE: 1 Effect Of Feeding Rabbit With Maize Replaced With Cocoa Industrial Waste Diet On Economic Of Production.

Levels of Replacement

PARAMETERS 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% SEM

Total feed consumed 4.28a 4.51 a 4.53 a 4.67 a 4.94 a 0.10

Weekly feed consumed 534.72 a 563.46 a 566.39 a 584.27 a 618.71 a 12.29

Daily feed consumed 76.39a 80.49 a 80.91 a 83.47 a 88.93 a 1.76

Initial weight gain 0.76 a 0.82 a 0.77 a 0.90 a 0.86 a 0.07

Final weight gain 1.64 a 1.37 a 1.63 a 1.58 a 1.29 a 0.09

Total weight gain 0.88b 0.53 a 0.84b 0.68ab 0.43a 0.05

Weekly weight gain 110.20 b 66.40a 105.20b 85.40ab 53.80a 6.57

Daily weight gain 15.80b 11.00ab 15.00b 12.40ab 8.20a 0.86

Feed gain ratio 5.29a 7.64b 5.70ab 7.00 ab 11.09c 0.05

Feed efficiency 0.20c 0.14ab 0.19bc 0.15bc 0.09a 0.01

Price per kg 433.80a 583.60bc 404.00a 456.20ab 61.60c 27.85

Price per kg of feed 82.03 76.43 70.83 65.83 59.63 -

Value within rows carrying different superscript differ significantly (p <0.05) result of rabbit economic of production as influenced with maize replaced with cocoa industrial waste diet is as presented in table 1. the result showed that there was no significant different in the daily feed consumed, weekly feed consumed and total feed consumed for the animal across the diet (p>0.05 ),and this result is in agreement with Areghore (2002) who discovered that animal consuming cocoa industrial waste might not have difficulty in lowering the gastric pH ,thus improving digestibility and utilization.

No significant (p>0.50) effect was also noticed in the initial weight gain and final weight gain for the animal across the diet which is in agreement with the result of Oyedapo (2000) that feeding animal with cocoa industrial waste did not significant (p<0.05)reduce the growth performance and apparent digestibility of nutrient. The daily weight gain, weekly weight gain and total weight gain were not significantly different (p>0.05) for the rabbits fed on 25% and 100%. Cocoa industrial waste replaced with maize diets which significantly different (p<0.05) from rabbits fed on 0%, 50%, and 75% diets of cocoa industrial replaced with maize. This was in agreement Alexander (2008) who reported that the chemical composition of cocoa bean shell is a useful ingredient for livestock feeding and especially in rabbits feed for meat production. However, reported that domestic rabbits could utilize cocoa waste with little or no cereal grain (maize). This implies that cocoa industrial waste could be used as a substitute for maize in the diet of growing rabbits and provide better economic of production. Feed gain ratio was significantly lower in the control diet (0%) when compared with diet 25% and 100% levels. Feed efficiency is significantly lower in rabbit fed 100% level when compared with the 0% level from this result, it could be suggested that maize in rabbit diet could be replaced with cocoa industrial waste up to 50% inclusion level without any adverse effect on growth and provide better economic of production.

The highest price per kg was recorded at 100% level of treatments which is highly significantly difference from 0% and 50% levels of cocoa industrial waste. Both 0% and 50% levels of cocoa industrial waste recorded the least price per kg in agreement with report Adeyina (2010) the use of agro-allied by-product has been promoted due to their availability, low price and non competitiveness for man use.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

This research finding showed that feeding rabbits with maize replaced with cocoa industrial waste diet had no effect on total feed consumed, weekly feed consumed and daily feed consumed of rabbits. However , the result showed that total weight gain, weekly weight gain, daily weight gain, feed gain ratio, feed efficiency, price per kg were significantly different (p<0.05). Price per kg was significantly lower in diet fed 50% level of replacement when compared with fed control. The result therefore suggests that feeding rabbit with maize replaced with cocoa industrial waste will be more economical and improve the weight of the rabbit.

The following recommendations were made for the rabbit farmers:

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Answer 2

The term used for the flow of electrons through a conductor is amperage.

Answer 3

The answer is simply free electrons vibrate using heat energy to pass on the charge through a conductor.

Answer 4

Yes, the flow of electrons through a conductor is called electric current or just current. Current is measured in amps.

Answer 5

That would be an "elektrische stroom"or"courant électrique"orcorrente elettrica"or corrente elétrica" or in English Electric current.

Answer 6

That is usually called an electric current.

Answer 7

A current in an electrical circuit.