It depends on if the motor is an AC motor, or DC motor. DC motors only run backwards when the voltages get crossed between + and -.
No, unless the motor was wound for dual voltage operation, which it will state on the motor nameplate, a 110 volt motor run on 240 volts will be damaged.
Yes. You can run it backwards, spin the rotor of the motor and take electricity out.
This is really a Hunt Model 18 Pencil Sharpener. It says 'Boston' on the front, but is manufactured by Hunt. There should be a sticker on the bottom that says Hunt Mfg Co., and MODEL 18, along with the UL mark and power requirements (115VAC - 2.0 AMPS - 60HZ) and the serial number. It does not run backwards when assembled correctly. It runs on 115 VAC, and if you were to reverse the wires to the motor it would still run the same way. It is possible to assemble the armature into the motor backwards and then mount the motor flipped over backwards and then it will run in the other direction. Without the armature in it, the motor is somewhat symmetrical and will fit together backwards, but when properly assembled the wires dress towards the back of the unit and make more difficult to assemble.
It makes the motor run insufficiently.
yes. that's how they work!
No, unless it is a three phase motor and you reverse only two of the phases.
Yes, just reverse the start winding circuit.
12V DC, yes.
By connect a starter motor backwards I assume you mean put the negative cable where the positive cable would go and then put the positive cable to the negative connection. In that case the starter motor should run backwards. That might be a handy thing to do if you are using a starter motor to power something else such as a winch or maybe a pump.
Motors running backwards: A DC motor wired backwards or magnetic field reversed. A 3 phase AC motor with 2 phases reversed A single phase motor will run either way unless it is 'persuaded' by means of a shaded pole or other method to rotate in a particular direction.
Yes, just swap any two wires to reverse it