What was the status of non-muslims during the golden age of Islam?

Answer 1

Under the Abbassid System, there was a clear inequality between religious groups that would today be considered a form of apartheid. However, it is worth noting that this system, which today would be unacceptable was actually very progressive for its time-period. In Europe, non-Christians in the 1000s and 1100s often lived fearing that they could be killed and maimed at a moment's hesitation.

The Dhimmi, or non-Muslim under Muslim occupation was required by the Pact of Omar to pay a number of taxes that were connected with his Dhimmi status. The most famous was the jizya, which was a tax that Dhimmi had to pay for Muslims for the right to not be killed where they stood for not acknowledging Mohammed's Prophecy; it was a form of humiliation. Additional taxes included the kharaj, which was a tax on non-Muslim land-holdings in the Muslim World. The kharaj was so untenable that most Dhimmi were forced to live in the cities where the tax would not be applicable. On paper, a Christian or Jew could testify against a Muslim, but in reality, such testimony was not acceptable and the attempt to defame a Muslim would receive retribution, creating a thoroughly unjust system. Christians and Jews were not allowed to build new houses of worship, restore old houses of worship, proselytize in any way (this included religious debate or dialogue), or allow wine or pigs to be shown in public. Dhimmi were also prohibited from serving in the government (except for certain particular positions) and were denied the ability to serve in the military or maintain weapons for self-defense.