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The history of the Arabian Peninsula helped shape the culture of the region when it became the cradle of Islam. The cities of Mecca and Medina hold high significance in the Islamic world. Mecca is the destination of the annual pilgrimage.
Not sure what you mean by "new." Historically, it would be Byzantium. The Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire began with the Roman Emperor Constantine I in the 4th Century CE; as Western Europe was collapsing into the Dark Ages, he moved the (his new) Roman capitol to the location of Byzantium in Turkey; to become the great city of Constantinople (known today as Istanbul). It continued on as the premier power center of civilization & culture of the Eastern Mediterranean for about a 1000 years, until it was conquered by the Ottomans...
it changed in a way that: it became a smaller empire their leader Genghis Khan died the population decreased
Feudalism existed in Europe between the ninth and the fifteenth centuries. It declined with the rise of the merchant class.
No. Rome was a Republic during 236. Rome was a monarchy in its founding and then again when it became the Roman Empire.