Who are the policy entrepreneurs and how do they utilize the media to get their issues on the policy agenda?

Answer 1

I. Introduction (208)

Television has had a tremendous impact on American politics. It provides us with information almost instantaneously and has set the stage for leaders to take quick action affecting the scope of government. The American political system has entered a period of high-tech politics in which the behavior of citizens and policymakers, as well as the political agenda itself, is shaped by technology. The mass media (television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet) are a key part of this technology.

II. The Mass Media Today (208-210)

An effective media strategy is crucial to any presidential campaign. A media event is a staged event designed primarily for the purpose of being covered. Candidates must get the right image on TV news and produce effective commercials. The media also are critical to day-to-day governing. Politicians' images in the press are good indicators of their clout. The Reagan Administration was particularly concerned with media appearance.

III. The Development of the Mass Media (211-216)

A. Introduction

The mass media age is a relatively recent phenomenon. Franklin Roosevelt practically invented media politics. He held two press conferences (presidential meetings with reporters) a week. He also effectively used the radio, both as a candidate and while in office. Roosevelt knew how to feed the right story to the right reporter and established a good relationship with the press. The events of the Vietnam War and Watergate scandal soured the press on government. The media now try to ferret out the truth about stories and no longer believe what politicians tell them. Investigative journalism, the use of detective-like reporting methods to unearth scandals, pits reporters against political leaders. There are two kinds of media, the print media (newspapers and magazines) and the broadcast media (television and radio).

B. The Print Media

The first American newspaper was printed in 1783, but newspapers expanded rapidly in the mid-nineteenth century with the "penny press." The turn of the century was characterized by yellow journalism and many newspapers consolidated into chains during the early part of the twentieth century. Newspaper circulation rates have been declining since the rise of television. Although magazines are read widely, the political content of the leading magazines is slim.

C. The Broadcast Media

The broadcast media have replaced the print media as Americans' principal source of news and information. The 1950s and early 1960s were the adolescent years for American television when the political career of Richard Nixon was made and unmade. The first televised presidential debate occurred in 1960 between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy. Kennedy's television appearance had a big impact on the outcome of the debate. During the 1960s, television took the country to the war in Vietnam and had a tremendous impact on why Americans turned against the war. Cable television has had a great impact because it brings the news to the people and political leaders as it happens. More people rely on TV for the news than any other medium and tend to believe what they see on TV more than what they read in the newspapers.

D. Narrowcasting: Cable TV and the Internet

The future of political communication seems destined to bring more and more choices regarding what we can see about our government, particularly as an increasing number of people subscribe to cable TV and the Internet. Cable TV and the Internet tend to focus on a narrow particular interest rather than appealing to a general audience. Hence, their mission can be termed "narrowcasting," rather than the traditional "broadcasting" practiced by the major networks.

IV. Reporting the News (216-223)

A. Introduction

News is what is timely and different, not routine. In their pursuit of high ratings, news shows are tailored to a fairly low level of audience sophistication. News is, therefore, what is entertaining to the average viewer.

B. Finding the News

Most news organizations assign their best reporters to particular beatsóspecific locations where news frequently emanates from. Journalists rely almost exclusively on established sources to get their information. Sometimes those who make the news feed stories to reporters in the form of trial balloons, information leaked to the media to see what the political reaction will be. When reporters feel that their access to information is being impeded, they may complain of censorship. Despite reliance on established sources, enterprising reporters occasionally uncover their own stories.

C. Presenting the News

News coverage by the print and broadcast media tends to be superficial. TV news, in particular, is little more than a headline service. Little attention is given to the issues during a presidential campaign and even less when there is no campaign. Oddly, as technology has enabled the media to pass along information with greater speed, news coverage has become less complete. In place of speeches, Americans hear sound bites of fifteen seconds or less.

D. Bias in the News

It is a common belief that the news tends to be biased. However, the vast majority of social science studies have found that reporting is not systematically biased toward a particular ideology or party. Most stories present two opposing views and most reporters practice journalistic objectivity. The overriding bias is toward stories that will draw the largest audience, such as stories with conflict, violence, disaster, or scandal. Television is particularly biased toward stories that generate good pictures. Talking heads are boring; viewers want more interesting visual stimulation.

V. The News and Public Opinion (223-225)

For many years scholars believed that the media had little more than a marginal effect on public opinion. However, when the focus turns to how the media affects what Americans think about, more positive results are uncovered. The media helps set the policy agenda. Television news can influence the criteria by which the public evaluates political leaders by how they cover issues and events. Studies have shown that news commentators have the strongest influence on public opinion changes. The media is a key political institution that affects what Americans think about.

VI. The Media's Agenda-Setting Function (225-226)

The policy agenda is "the list of subjects or problems to which government officials, and people outside of government closely associated with those officials, are paying some serious attention at any given time." Policy entrepreneurs are people who invest their political capital in an issue and often use the media to get their ideas placed high on the policy agenda.

The staging of political events to attract media attention has become a political art form used by all presidents. The poor and downtrodden also can use the media to publicize their cause. This was important to the Civil Rights Movement. A long-term, positive image via the media is particularly important and policy entrepreneurs depend on good will and good images. Often they find the need to hire a public relations firm to help them with this.

VII. Understanding the Mass Media (227-229)

A. The Media and the Scope of Government

The watchdog function of the media helps to restrict politicians. When every new proposal is met with skepticism, regular constraints are placed on the scope of what government can do. The press is reformist-oriented. At the same time, once the media identifies a problem, they ask what the government is doing about it. Though skeptical of what politicians say and do, the media report on America's social problems in a manner that encourages government to take on more and more tasks.

B. Individualism and the Media

The media furthers individualism in politics since politicians are much more capable of running for office on their own and appealing directly to the people through television. The American institutional agenda has changed because television finds it easier to focus on individuals than on groups. Political parties have thus declined.

C. Democracy and the Mass Media

Widespread access to information could be a great boon to democracy, yet this has not happened. The rise of the "information society" has not brought about the rise of the "informed society." The media argues it gives the public what it wants. To make a profit it must appeal to the maximum number of people. People largely want their news to be entertaining and do not care to hear about complex political issues.