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At its height, the Umayyad Empire (661-750 CE) stretched from the Iberian Peninsula in the west, covering modern-day Spain and Portugal, to the Indian subcontinent in the east, encompassing parts of present-day Pakistan and India. It included North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of the Caucasus, making it one of the largest empires in history. The vast expanse facilitated the spread of Islamic culture, trade, and language across diverse regions.

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