A lunar distance (LD) is an astronomical measurement of the distance from the Earth to the Moon. The average distance from Earth to the Moon is 384,403 kilometers or 238,857 miles, but the actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the moon. Depending on the Moon's location in its orbit, it is between 225,623 and 252,088 miles away from Earth. This is about 30 times the diameter of the Earth.

Measurements of the lunar distance are made by measuring the time it takes for light to travel between the LIDAR stations on Earth and the retroreflectors placed on the Moon. Experiments show that the Moon is spiraling away from Earth at an average rate of 3.8 cm per year.

Orbital distances are calculated between the center of the Earth and the center of the Moon. So the actual surface-to-surface distance is shorter by about 7457 kilometers (4634 miles).

Because tides spin faster than the Moon moves, the tidal reaction pulls the Moon forward a tiny bit. The moon recedes at a rate of approximately 3.8 cm (1.5 inches) per year. When there was only one continent, the rate was less.

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The moon is on an elliptical orbit, so it it not consistently the same distance from earth. When the moon is the closest to earth, it is 225,623 miles away; when the moon is farthest away from earth, it is 252,088 miles away.

Theories of the Origin of the Moon

After years of research, studying gamma rays and rock samples from the Earth and the Moon, it is generally accepted that the ages of the Earth and the Moon are the same. There are several theories on its formation.

• IMPACT : One theory is that it was formed from the Earth's crust, following the impact of a large (Mars-sized) asteroid. A long string of rocky fragments were blown out from the Earth in the form of a trail, which coalesced into the Moon. Supporting this, the Earth has a large iron core but the Moon does not : the Earth's iron would have already sunken into the core by the time the giant impact happened.
• COACCRETION : Another theory, advocated by Edward Roche, is known as coaccretion. It proposes the concurrent information of both the Earth and the Moon from clouds of space material. As a result the new Moon gets spun by the Earth's gravity field and starts to circle the Earth. The fact is that all smaller solar bodies appear to be irregularly shaped, but larger ones are nearly spherical.
• FISSION : The fission theory states that the Moon long ago split off from a fast-rotating Earth, like mud flung from a spinning bicycle wheel. The present Pacific Ocean basin is the most popular site for the part of the Earth from which the Moon may have come. This is not supported by evidence of higher rotational speed in the past.
• CAPTURE : If the Moon formed separately, it could have come close enough to the Earth's gravitational field to be trapped. The angle of orbital approach would have to be within narrow parameters in relationship to the moving centre of the orbiting Earth. The chance of this occurrence is very low without some other gravitational interaction.

The prevailing theory at present is some form of early impact, possibly by a co-orbiting object that fused with the Earth after the collision, but that blasted loose the material which later formed the Moon.

Most widely accepted scientific explanation

It is believed that the moon formed around 4.5 billion years ago and only a few hundred million years after the Earth.

Today, based on the evidence, the most widely accepted scientific explanation for the formation of the Moon is called the Giant Impact Hypothesis. According to this model, the Moon formed from debris that was the result of a huge collision. Not long after Earth formed, a proto-planet about the size of Mars (often called Theia) smashed into it at a low angle and relatively low speed. The cataclysmic impact rendered the entire Earth molten, and caused significant amounts of its mantle and crust to be blown into space. The metallic core of the impactor sunk through the Earth's mantle to fuse with Earth's core, thereby depleting the Moon of metallic material and explaining its unusual composition. The force of the collision is also believed to have been responsible for tilting the Earth at angle of 23.5 degrees, allowing for seasons.

The debris from the collision began orbiting the Earth and gathered together through gravity to form a sphere: the Moon. The Moon formed surprisingly quickly, possibly in less than a month but no more than a century. It started out closer to the Earth than it is today, and must have caused massive tides. Slowly, due to conservation fo angular momentum, it moved further and further out until it got to the familiar orbit it is now. Even today, the Moon is receding from Earth by an inch and a half every year, but it will take billions of years for the Moon to escape from Earth's gravity altogether.

There are still some problems with the Giant Impact hypothesis that need to be overcome. For example, the ratios of the Moon's volatile elements (such as water) are not explained by this model. Also, the moon's oxygen isotopic ratios are essentially identical to Earth's when they should be different. Regardless, the Giant Impact model is currently the best explanation scientists have based on the evidence that has been gathered, and holds more weight than the other theories for the Moon's formation.

• The Fission Theory: This theory proposes that the Moon was once part of the Earth and somehow separated from the Earth early in the history of the solar system. The present Pacific Ocean basin is the most popular site for the part of the Earth from which the Moon came. This theory was thought possible since the Moon's composition resembles that of the Earth's mantle and a rapidly spinning Earth could have cast off the Moon from its outer layers. However, the present-day Earth-Moon system should contain "fossil evidence" of this rapid spin and it does not. Also, this hypothesis does not have a natural explanation for the extra baking the lunar material has received.
• The Capture Theory: This theory proposes that the Moon was formed somewhere else in the solar system, and was later captured by the gravitational field of the Earth. The Moon's different chemical composition could be explained if it formed elsewhere in the solar system, however, capture into the Moon's present orbit is very improbable. Something would have to slow it down by just the right amount at just the right time, and scientists are reluctant to believe in such "fine tuning". Also, this hypothesis does not have a natural explanation for the extra baking the lunar material has received.
• The Condensation Theory: This theory proposes that the Moon and the Earth condensed individually from the nebula that formed the solar system, with the Moon formed in orbit around the Earth. However, if the Moon formed in the vicinity of the Earth it should have nearly the same composition. Specifically, it should possess a significant iron core, and it does not. Also, this hypothesis does not have a natural explanation for the extra baking the lunar material has received.

Twelve men have walked on the Moon, all US astronauts of the Apollo program.

They were :

Apollo 11

(July 20, 1969)- Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin (the first men to walk on the Moon)

Apollo 12 - Charles Conrad, Jr. and Alan Bean

Apollo 14 - Alan Shepard Jr. and Edgar Mitchell (Shepard was also the first US 'man in space' in 1961).

Apollo 15 - David Scott and James Irwin

Apollo 16 - John Young and Charles Duke, Jr.

Apollo 17 - Eugene Cernan and Dr. Harrison Schmitt

(Cernan was the last man to walk on the moon on December 14, 1972)

--see the related question below

Answer

The temperature of the Moon's night is -173.3 degrees C. (-280 degrees Fahrenheit).

It depends on the ancient culture you're referring to.

Ancient China:

It was believed that a dragon was eating the Sun to symbolise that famine and disease was coming. The Ancient Chinese who believed this would form defences around their land to ward off the dragon, preventing famine and disease from affecting them.

They were also used to forecast predictions for the Chinese Emperors. Which was a very risky thing to do, because if you got the Emperor's forecast wrong, you were executed.

Ancient Japan:

Earthquakes.

And sometimes, earthquakes do actually occur after an eclipse. Although nowadays there is a scientific explanation, related to enhanced gravitational pull during the eclipse, resulting in an earthquake.

Superstitious Ancient Japanese would fire arrows at the eclipse to battle it. Later they even fired Tetsuho's at the eclipse.

(Tetsuho's were the first Japanese gunpowder-firearms, a heavy and extremely inaccurate hand-held cannon).

Ancient India:

Bad luck for pregnant women.

After an eclipse, pregnant women who were pregnant at the time of the event would be protected from doing household work such as weaving, cutting food, sewing and so on. This was to protect their unborn child from deformities and scars from the result of an eclipse-influenced accident.

There were many rituals performed on pregnant women, such as various bathing techniques, to ward off the "unlucky curse".

Ancient Arabia:

Message: It's time to seek forgiveness.

In Islam, the Sun and Moon are both connected to Allah's reverence.

When an eclipse occurs, it was believed that Allah was expressing his desire for the sinful to seek forgiveness and bestow greatness upon him.

Ancient Holy Roman Empire:

It was believed that an eclipse symbolised the wrath of God, casting his anger over man.

It was also seen as a threat from God to Mankind, "I am angry, appease me or Judgement Day will come".

Some Christians still believe this despite scientific evidence explaining the real reasons for the eclipse.

Ancient Babylon:

The Ancient Babylonians were one of the only ancient civilisations to get the facts about eclipses correct.

They were the first civilisation to discover that eclipses were a celestial event, not something caused by Gods or omens.

Ancient Babylonian astronomers were able to successfully forecast solar and lunar eclipses.

Ancient Egypt.

Nobody really knows.

Most of our knowledge of Ancient Egypt comes from tomb paintings and temple inscriptions. There are various theories about what Ancient Egyptians knew or thought about solar eclipses, but none of them have solid proof.

The evidence of most Egyptian knowledge, including what they knew about astronomy, mathematics and medicine, was lost in the fire of the Great Library of Alexandria.

Jenaro Gajardo Vera (*November 18, 1919 in Traiguén, Malleco Province - †May 3, 1998 in Santo Domingo, San Antonio Province) was an eccentric lawyer, painter and Chilean poet. He became famous from September 25 of 1953 until his death, as the legitimate owner of the Moon.

The United Nations 1967 publication "Outer Space Treaty" states space is the "province of all mankind", and is not subject to claims on sovereignty by States. As treaties apply to States and place obligations on States, and since the Space Treaties were drafted at a time when, realistically, the only "people" going into space were States, none of the space treaties make reference to private parties. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 has currently been ratified by 98 states, including all the major space-faring nations.

The international Moon Treaty, finalised in 1979 and entering into force in 1984, forbids private ownership of extraterrestrial real estate. However, as of January 1, 2008 only 13 states have ratified the agreement, and none of these are major space-faring nations. Kazakhstan has ratified the treaty and is host to the Baikonur Cosmodrome. However, the facility is operated through a leasing agreement by Russia.