Dictionary:

aquaculture

  (ăk'wə-kŭl'chər, ä'kwə-) also aquiculture (ăk'wĭ-kŭl'chər, ä'kwĭ-)

1. The science, art, and business of cultivating marine or freshwater food fish or shellfish, such as oysters, clams, salmon, and trout, under controlled conditions.
2. Hydroponics.

The cultivation of fresh-water and marine species (the latter type is often referred to as mariculture). Aquacultural ventures occur worldwide. China grows macroalgae (seaweeds) and carp. Japan cultures a wide range of marine organisms, including yellowtail, sea bream, salmonids, tuna, penaeid shrimp, oysters, scallops, abalone, and algae. Russia concentrates on the culture of fish such as sturgeon, salmon, and carp. North America grows catfish, trout, salmon, oysters, and penaeid shrimp. Europe cultures flatfish, trout, oysters, mussels, and eels. Presently, plant aquaculture is almost exclusively restricted to Japan, China, and Korea, where the national diets include substantial amounts of macroalgae.

The worldwide practice of aquaculture runs the gamut from low-technology extensive methods to highly intensive systems. At one extreme, extensive aquaculture can be little more than contained stock replenishment, using natural bodies of water such as coastal embayments, where few if any alterations of the environment are made. Such culture usually requires a low degree of management and low investment and operating costs; it generally results in low yields per unit area. At the other extreme, intensive aquaculture, animals are grown in systems such as tanks and raceways, where the support parameters are carefully controlled and dependence on the natural environment is minimal. Such systems require a high degree of management and usually involve substantial investment and operating costs, resulting in high yields per unit area.

A unique combination of highly intensive and extensive aquaculture occurs in ocean ranching, as commonly employed with anadromous fish (which return from the ocean to rivers at the time of spawning). The two most notable examples are the ranching of salmon and sturgeon. In both instances, highly sophisticated hatchery systems are used to rear young fish, which are then released to forage and grow in their natural environment. The animals are harvested upon return to their native rivers.

Intensive aquaculture brings with it high energy costs, necessitating the design of energy-efficient systems. As this trend continues, aquaculture will shift more to a year-round, mass-production industry using the least amount of land and water possible. With this change to high technology and dense culturing, considerable knowledge and manipulation of the life cycles and requirements of each species are necessary. Specifically, industrialized aquaculture has mandated the development of reproductive control, hatchery technology, feeds technology, disease control, and systems engineering.

Regardless of the type of system used, aquacultural products are marketed as are fisheries products (which are caught in the ocean), except for some advantages. For one, fisheries products often must be transported on boats and may experience spoilage; whereas cultured products, which are land-based, can be delivered fresh to the various nearby markets. Also, intensively cultured products through genetic selection can result in a more desirable food than those caught in the wild, with uniform size and improved taste resulting from controlled feeding and rearing in pollution-free water. See also Agriculture; Marine fisheries.

[AH-kwah-kuhl-tcher] The cultivation of fish, shellfish or aquatic plants (such as seaweed) in natural or controlled marine or freshwater environments. Even though aquaculture began eons ago with the ancient Greeks, it wasn't until the 1980s that the practice finally began to expand rapidly. Aquaculture "farms" take on a variety of forms including huge tanks, freshwater ponds, and shallow- or deep-water marine environments. Today, the farming and harvesting of fish and shellfish is a multimillion-dollar business. Among the most popular denizens of the deep that are farmed are bivalves like oysters, clams and mussels; crustaceans like crayfish, lobsters and shrimp; and fish like catfish, salmon, trout and tilapia. See also hydroponics.

The use of waters, other than the sea, for agricultural production, usually the production of fish. See also fish farming.

For more information on aquaculture, visit Britannica.com.

Aquaculture, the controlled or semi-controlled production of aquatic plants and animals, has increased at double-digit percentage rates since the early 1980s. This increase has been in response to declines in commercial harvests of wild stocks of fish and shellfish. Oceans of the world are currently at maximum sustainable yield. Since the late 1980s, there has been a concerted effort to maintain global commercial harvest of ocean fish at approximately 100 million metric tons (mmt). However, as global population grows, demand for fish and shellfish increases, and the percentage of aquatic products grown in aquaculture must likewise rise to meet the supply of those products. Projections for increased production are in the range of 40–100 mmt of new aquaculture production by about the year 2030. The lower range assumes only increases in world population; the upper figure represents increases in world population plus a 1 percent per year increase in per capita consumption. To put this number in perspective, the 1995 world production figures for soybeans was 137 mmt, swine was 83 mmt, and chickens was 46 mmt. Thus, to meet demand in the first part of the twenty-first century, we must realize significant growth. This increase in production will not be accomplished with a single species.

There are fewer than thirty large species-specific aquaculture industries globally, and the fourteen largest industries are listed in the table. However, there are over twenty-five thousand species of fish and there are estimates that one thousand new species are being evaluated for their culture potential. The small percentage of species raised relative to the total number available is an indication that aquaculture is a new concept in many parts of the world. As a subsistence enterprise, aquaculture has been practiced for over four thousand years. As a series of large industries, aquaculture is less than fifty years old, often stimulated by declining wild stocks of fish. The channel catfish industry, which only began in the late 1960s in the southern United States, is illustrative of a relatively young industry. Today, over 90 percent of the U.S. supply of Atlantic salmon is cultured. In 1980, that figure was a fraction of 1 percent, at most. The global supply and demand characteristics created a good deal of volatility in production, which has only increased over time. Additional factors such as identification of new diseases and movement of those diseases contribute to the volatility in production. Inevitably, as new aquaculture species are brought into culture settings, new diseases are identified that were previously unknown. In the past ten years, new viral diseases have been identified in shrimp and salmon, both of which caused large-scale losses from production facilities.

Table 1

Of the approximately 25 mmt of global aquaculture production, there are only a few industries that produced over 1 mmt in 1996. Several of the species of Asian carp and the common carp account for the largest industries. Silver carp production was 2.2 mmt, grass carp production was 1.8 mmt, bighead carp production was 1.1 mmt, and common carp production was 1.5 mmt. Virtually all of this production occurred in China with the exception of common carp, which is raised throughout Europe, its native range. Of the species typically available in U.S. markets, pen-raised Atlantic salmon accounted for 0.4 mmt, rainbow trout production for 0.3 mmt, channel catfish production for 0.2 mmt, and tilapia for 0.6 mmt. Production of several invertebrates was significant. Scallop production was 1.0 mmt, shrimp production was 0.9 mmt, oyster production was 1.1 mmt, mussel production was 1.0 mmt, and clam production was 1.0 mmt. Production of brown seaweeds was 4.5 mmt and red seaweed production was 1.6 mmt. Thus, the largest aquaculture industry is the production of brown seaweeds, largely for nonfood use. In the twenty-first century, greater demand will likely result in increased production.

There are only a few production systems in use for aquaculture, and they include earthen ponds, raceways, cages or net pens, and indoor recirculating systems. Earthen ponds or cages placed in existing bodies of water are the oldest production system and the indoor recirculating systems are the newest. For successful culture, considerable technical expertise is required when using a recirculating system. All of the current industries use earthen ponds (catfish, tilapia, Asian carps, shrimp), raceways (rainbow trout), or cages/net pens (Atlantic salmon, yellowtail, an amberjack from Southeast Asia). Producers are experimenting with indoor recirculating systems using a wide variety of species. There are a few successful producers using indoor systems, but the number will inevitably grow as both the systems themselves and information on targeted species increase. Successful aquaculture can be viewed as the correct match of species under a certain set of market conditions with production system. Some species do not tolerate some of the production systems or do not thrive in those systems. Behavioral characteristics of the various species often point toward the appropriate culture systems. For example, sedentary fish (bluegill, catfish, and flounder) should probably be raised in systems without significant water flow (earthen ponds, cages/net pens), whereas those that typically swim a great deal (tuna, trout, and striped bass) can be raised in raceway systems with a constant flow of water.

Fish are generally considered good quality food for human consumption because of the low saturated fat levels and generally high levels of n-3 fatty acids. Fish tend to retain the fatty acids that are in their diet. Thus, we can manipulate the fatty acid concentrations of fish and produce "designer fish" for targeted markets. Further, we can control the fat concentration in muscle through selected feed and produce a low-fat or high-fat fish depending on the demands of the market. Cultured aquatic animals can be safer products for consumption than wild fish because they are raised in a defined environment, and pollutants can be eliminated. Wild fish can be exposed to environmental pollutants and retain those they encounter. Organoleptic properties (taste) of fish and shell-fish raised in aquaculture can be quite different from wild stocks. Fish flavor can be manipulated by dietary ingredients fed to the target species. If the diet contains a relatively high percentage of fish meal, the fish can taste fishier than if the diet contains a relatively high percentage of corn and soybean products. Fish fed the latter diets are often described as "milder" tasting, which is a desirable characteristic in certain markets. There is also a taste consideration with environment. Some species can survive both fresh-and saltwater, but osmoregulation changes to meet the challenges of those environments. This physiological change affects taste because of the chemical compounds used to regulate ionic balance. A good example of this is the freshwater shrimp. When raised in freshwater, taste has been described as mild, whereas if the shrimp is placed in saltwater for one to two weeks, it will taste more like a marine shrimp. Even with these positive attributes, aquaculture is experiencing growing pains.

Culture of aquatic animals produces the same wastes as other animal production industries. The problem is confounded by the fact that those wastes are discharged as rearing water is renewed. There have been incidences of environmental degradation resulting from aquaculture. One of the focal points of aquacultural research is waste management, focusing on phosphorus and nitrogen dynamics originating in the diet. Those efforts, as well as efforts related to siting aquaculture operations, land-use practices, and economic development, have become the focal point of sustainable aquaculture development. Along with the overall focus on sustainability, there are significant concerns about the feed used to achieve aquaculture's successes. Fish meal is a high-quality ingredient, yet it is a finite resource similar to all other species in the oceans. Ingredients made from soybeans, corn, canola, wheat, legumes, peanuts, and barley, as well as the by-products of the brewing industries and animal packing operations, are needed.

Growth of aquaculture in the twenty-first century will most likely be similar to growth in terrestrial animal production seen in the twentieth century. Fish and shell-fish are the last major food item humans still hunt and gather from wild populations. The sustainable nature of aquacultural production probably will be the focal point of research in the early part of the twenty-first century and those results should facilitate the production increases necessary for sufficient quantities of fish and shell-fish in the future.

Bibliography

Adelizi, Paul D., Ronald R. Rosati, Kathleen Warner, Y. Victor Wu, Tim R. Muench, M. Randall White, and Paul B. Brown. "Evaluation of Fish Meal-Free Diets for Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mvkiss." Aquaculture Nutrition 4, no. 4 (1998): 255–262.

Donahue, Darrell W., Robert C. Bayer, John G. Riley, Alfred A. Bushway, Paul B. Brown, Russell A. Hazen, Keith E. Moore, and Dorothy A. Debruyne. "The Effect of Soy-Based Diets on Weight Gain, Shell Hardness, and Flavor of the American Lobster (Homarus americanus)." Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology 8, no. 3 (1999): 69–77.

Floreto, Eric A. T., Robert C. Bayer, and Paul B. Brown. "The Effects of Soybean-Based Diets, with and without Amino Acid Supplementation, on Growth and Biochemical Composition of Juvenile American Lobster, Homarus americanus." Aquaculture 189 (2000): 211–235.

New, M. B. "Aquaculture and the Capture Fisheries—Balancing the Scales." World Aquaculture 28 (1997): 11–30.

Riche, M., and P. B. Brown. "Incorporation of Plant Protein Feedstuffs into Fish Meal Diets for Rainbow Trout Increases Phosphorus Availability." Aquaculture Nutrition 5 (1999): 101–105.

Twibell, Ronald G., and Paul B. Brown. "Optimum Dietary Crude Protein for Hybrid Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus Fed All-Plant Diets." Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 29 (1998): 9–16.

Twibell, Ronald G., Bruce A. Watkins, Laura Rogers, and Paul B. Brown. "Dietary Conjugated Linoleic Acids Alter Hepatic and Muscle Lipids in Hybrid Striped Bass. Lipids 35 (2000): 155–161.

Wu, Y. Victor, Ronald R. Rosati, and Paul B. Brown. "Effects of Lysine on Growth of Tilapia Fed Diets Rich in Corn Gluten Meal." Cereal Chemistry 75 (1998): 771–774.

Wu, Y. Victor, Kerry W. Tudor, Paul B. Brown, and Ronald R. Rosati. "Substitution of Plant Proteins or Meat and Bone Meal for Fish Meal in Diets of Nile Tilapia. North American Journal of Aquaculture 6 (1999): 58–63.

—Paul B. Brown

Cultivation and harvesting of plants and animals in water. Called also mariculture.

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Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi

Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. Unlike fishing, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. ^[1] Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture (the production of kelp/seaweed and other algae); fish farming; shrimp farming, shellfish farming, and the growing of cultured pearls.

History

Tilapia, a commonly farmed fish due to its adaptability

Aquaculture has been used since ancient times and can be found in many cultures. Aquaculture was used in China circa 2500 BC. When the waters lowered after river floods, some fishes, namely carp, were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using nymphs and silkworm feces, while the fish themselves were eaten as a source of protein. The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture by constructing fish ponds (see Hawaiian aquaculture). A remarkable example from ancient Hawaii is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical Menehune. The Japanese practiced cultivation of seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. The Romans often bred fish in ponds.

The practice of aquaculture gained prevalence in Europe during the Middle Ages, since fish were scarce and thus expensive. However, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, causing a decline in the practice. The first North American fish hatchery was constructed on Dildo Island, Newfoundland Canada in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the world.

Americans were rarely involved in aquaculture until the late 20th century, but California residents harvested wild kelp and made legal efforts to manage the supply starting circa 1900, later even producing it as a wartime resource. (Peter Neushul, Seaweed for War: California's World War I kelp industry, Technology and Culture 30 (July 1989), 561-583)

In contrast to agriculture, the rise of aquaculture is a contemporary phenomenon. According to professor Carlos M. Duarte About 430 (97%) of the aquatic species presently in culture have been domesticated since the start of the 20th century, and an estimated 106 aquatic species have been domesticated over the past decade. The domestication of an aquatic species typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Current success in the domestication of aquatic species results from the 20thcentury rise of knowledge on the basic biology of aquatic species and the lessons learned from past success and failure. The stagnation in the world's fisheries and overexploitation of 20 to 30% of marine fish species have provided additional impetus to domesticate marine species, just as overexploitation of land animals provided the impetus for the early domestication of land species

In the 1960s, the price of fish began to climb, as wild fish capture rates peaked and the human population continued to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on an unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s, open-netcage salmon farming also expanded; this particular type of aquaculture technology remains a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but possible negative impacts on wild stocks, which have come into question since the late 1990s, have caused it to become a major cause of controversy.[1]

Economic role

In 2003, the total world production of fisheries product was 132.2 million tonnes of which aquaculture contributed 41.9 million tonnes or about 31% of the total world production. The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture is very rapid (> 10% per year for most species) while the contribution to the total from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last decade.

In the US, approximately 90% of all shrimp consumed is farmed and imported.[2] In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt and Quellón, Chile's fastest-growing city.

Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9 million to nearly 23 million tons. China now produces 70% of the world's farmed fish. [3] [4]

Ecological impacts

Types of aquaculture

Algaculture

Main article: Algaculture

An open pond Spirulina farm

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae.

Macroalgae, commonly know as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae and are most often harvested wild from the ocean.

Fish farming

Main article: Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, carp, trout and others.

Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein.

Freshwater prawn farming

Main article: Freshwater prawn farm

A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawn or shrimp for human consumption. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental life cycle of the main species (the giant river prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii).^[2]

The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tons, of which China produced some 180,000 tons, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tons each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tons of Chinese river crab (Eriocheir sinensis).^[3]

Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture

Main article: Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed) and organic extractive (e.g. shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).^[4]

"Multi-Trophic" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system.^[5] This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches, as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. The "Integrated" in IMTA refers to the more intensive cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer through water, but not necessarily right at the same location.

Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species should be more than just biofilters; they should also be harvestable crops of commercial value.^[5] A working IMTA system should result in greater production for the overall system, based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the individual production of some of the species is lower compared to what could be reached in monoculture practices over a short term period.^[6]

Sometimes the more general term "Integrated Aquaculture" is used to describe the integration of monocultures through water transfer between organisms.^[6] For all intents and purposes however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated aquaculture" differ primarily in their degree of descriptiveness. These terms are sometimes interchanged. Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture, IAAS (integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems), IPUAS (integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems), and IFAS (integrated fisheries-aquaculture systems) may also be considered variations of the IMTA concept.

Mariculture

Main article: Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish, prawns, or oysters in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewelries (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Shrimp farming

Main article: Shrimp farm

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the U.S., Japan and Western Europe. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. The largest exporting nation is Thailand.

Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and broodstock is shipped world-wide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family Penaeidae), and just two species of shrimp—the Penaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp) and the Penaeus monodon (giant tiger prawn)—account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to diseases, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both NGOs and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.

Types of fish in aquaculture

• Asian carp
• Atlantic Salmon
• Barramundi
• Bighead carp
• Black carp
• Catfish
• Catla
• Common Carp
• Grass carp
• Gourami
• Milkfish

See also

• Algaculture
• Fish farming
• Mariculture
• Maine Salmon
• Shrimp farm
• Freshwater prawn farming

References

• Corpron, K.E., Armstrong, D.A., 1983. Removal of nitrogen by an aquatic plant, Elodea densa, in recirculating Macrobrachium culture systems. Aquaculture 32, 347-360.
• Hepburn, J. 2002. Taking Aquaculture Seriously. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association.
• Kinsey, Darin, 2006 "'Seeding the water as the earth' : epicentre and peripheries of a global aquacultural revolution. Environmental History 11, 3: 527-66
• Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. Aquaculture – A Gateway For Exotic Species. Science, 294: 1655-6.
• The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture
• Higginbotham James Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997)
• Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I University of Hawaii Press :: ISBN 0-8248-1396-0
• Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T., Vinci, B.J., 2002. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems: 2nd edition. Cayuga Aqua Ventures.
• Piedrahita, R.H., 2003. Reducing the potential environmental impacts of tank aquaculture effluents through intensification and recirculation. Aquaculture 226, 35-44.
• Klas, S., Mozes, N., Lahav, O., 2006. Development of a single-sludge denitrification method for nitrate removal from RAS effluents: Lab-scale results vs. model prediction. Aquaculture 259, 342-353.
• Rapid Domestication of Marine Species, Carlos M. Duarte, Nùria Marbá, Marianne Holmer; Science 20 April 2007: Vol. 316. no. 5823, pp. 382 - 383

Notes

1. ^ American Heritage Definition of Aquaculture
2. ^ New, M. B.: Farming Freshwater Prawns; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 428, 2002. ISSN 0429-9345.
3. ^ Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed June 28, 2005.
4. ^ Chopin T, Buschmann AH, Halling C, Troell M, Kautsky N, Neori A, Kraemer GP, Zertuche-Gonzalez JA, Yarish C and Neefus C. 2001. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phycology 37: 975-986.
5. ^ ^{a b} Chopin T. 2006. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. What it is, and why you should care… and don’t confuse it with polyculture. Northern Aquaculture, Vol. 12, No. 4, July/August 2006, pg. 4.
6. ^ ^{a b} Neori A, Chopin T, Troell M, Buschmann AH, Kraemer GP, Halling C, Shpigel M and Yarish C. 2004. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture. Aquaculture 231: 361-391.

Further reading

• AquaLingua ISBN 8252923895

External links

• Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific: Intergovernmental organization with 17 members that produce > 85% of global aquaculture production. Free news and full-text aquaculture publications for download.
• The World Aquaculture Society: an international non-profit society with over 3,000 members in 94 countries with the primary focus to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community.
• Aquaculture Association of Canada:
• Aqua Farm Designs - Benefits of Water recirculation systems in Aquaculture: Description of water recirculation aquaculture systems and benefits of using these types of farm designs to produce fish within eco-friendly land based enclosed aquaculture operations.
• FishingHurts.com/FishFarms: Criticism of aquaculture's effects on animal welfare and the environment
• Aquaculture Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
• Aquaculture Resources Directory A directory of reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources.
• FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report on fisheries and aquaculture
• Organic Aquaculture: Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically.
• Aquaculture Knowledge Environment: A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct.
• Watershed Watch Society Salmon farming and sea lice
• AquaNIC A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources.
• American Fisheries Society
• Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture
• FISHING FOR INFORMATION HOME PAGE: Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science
• Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on his social effects
• Aquaculture
• Aquaculture and the Protection of Wild Salmon
• Aquaculture and Information
• AAAS science magazine feature on aquaculture
• AAAS science podcast of 20 April 2007 features Carlos M. Duarte on the surprising growth in cultivation of aquatic species

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - fiskeopdræt, dyrkning af vandplanter

Nederlands (Dutch)
hydrocultuur

Français (French)
n. - aquaculture

Deutsch (German)
n. - Fischzucht

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - υδατοκαλλιέργεια

Italiano (Italian)
idroponica

Português (Portuguese)
n. - aquacultura (f)

Русский (Russian)
гидропоника

Español (Spanish)
n. - acuicultura

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - vattenbruk, havsodling

中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
水产业

中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 水產業

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 수경법, 양어

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 水産養殖, 水耕法

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) زراعه مائيه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮גידול של חיות או צמחי מים‬

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