Swatches of Berber carpet
A carpet is any loom-woven, felted textile or grass floor covering. The term was also used for table and wall
coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century. The hand-knotted pile
carpet probably originated in Central Asia between the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC.
Carpet-making was introduced to Spain in 10th century by the Moors. The Crusades brought Turkish
carpets to all of Europe, where they were primarily hung on walls or used on tables. Only with the opening of trade routes
in the 17th century were significant numbers of Persian rugs introduced to Western
Europe.
Some use the words carpet and rug interchangeably. Historically, however, some have distinguished between carpet and
rug based on size (the former being larger) or use (carpets on floors, rugs on beds or on the hearth). For the sake of clarity,
some textile scholars also differentiate between carpets and carpeting. In this usage, the latter are wall-to-wall and are
often woven or tufted as "roll goods", most often in 12 foot widths but sometimes in up to 15 foot widths. In the real estate and
home improvement industries a distinction is made between carpet (or carpeting) and rug. The former indicates a covering that is
affixed to a floor and the latter a floor covering that is loose-laid, most often for decorative purposes.
Typical machine used to cut and re-roll carpet lengths for installation delivery
Carpet types
Swatches of machine-made carpet
The global carpet market for domestic and industrial end use is dominated by three manufacturing processes:
Woven: The carpet is produced on a loom similar to woven cloth and is a cut pile. Normally many coloured yarns are used
and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from pre-determined designs. These carpets are normally the most
expensive.
Tufted: The carpet is produced on a tufting machine using a single-colored or sometimes non-colored yarn. If
non-colored yarn is used the carpet will later be dyed or printed with a design. Tufted carpets can be either cut pile, loop pile
or a combination of both. Tufting machines produce many more metres of carpet per hour than weaving does, and tufted carpets are
usually low- to medium-priced.
Modern tufting technology allows basic geometric patterns to be produced in addition to solid color. The fibers used to create
the patterns are twisted into yarns and then "tufted" into carpet. Because tufting machines work like enormous sewing machines
with multiple needles, tufted carpet can be produced quickly. For this reason, most of the carpet manufactured today is tufted
rather than woven.
A ColorTEC carpet is manufactured on a tufting machine but is capable of producing a design that is close to that of a
woven carpet. ColorTec carpet can have a design up to 20 yards (18m) in length and allows the whole floorscape to be
produced rather than small patterns being repeated.
Needlefelt: These carpets are more technologically advanced. Needlefelts are produced by electrostatic attraction of
individual synthetic fibers forming an extremely durable carpet. These carpets are normally found in the contract market such as
hotels etc. where there is a lot of traffic.
A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and
weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, plain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka
double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply).
A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a
sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft.
On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads
alternate with a supplementary weft that rises at right angles to the surface of the weave. This supplementary weft is attached
to the warp by one of three knot types (see below) to form the pile or nap of the carpet.
In the late 19th century moquette came to mean wall-to-wall carpeting. However,
historically it meant a supplementary warp-cut or uncut loop pile made on a draw loom (aka
Velour d'Utrecht, Brussels, Wilton, bouclé, and Frisé). These textiles have a low pile and are
thinner than hand knotted pile carpets. This form of carpeting, made as early as the 16th century, is constructed on a mechanized
loom like velvet: the supplementary warps loop under the weft and are attached without forming a
knot. Because of the loom structure only five colors can be used to create the design. Moquette is woven in relatively narrow
panels (usually 27" or 36"). Larger works are composed of several stripes sewn together. Moquette carpets have been used on
floors and tables, and as furniture upholstery and wall coverings. Production was improved with the application of the Jacquard
mechanism (see Jacquard loom) in 1812 in France and c. 1825 in England, and by the
introduction of steam power in the mid-19th century.
Unlike woven carpets, embroidery carpets are not formed on a loom. Their pattern is
established by the application of stitches to a cloth (often
linen) base. The tent stitch and the cross stitch are two of the most common. Embroidered carpets
were traditionally made by royal and aristocratic women in the home, but there has been some commercial manufacture since steel
needles were introduced (earlier needles were made of bone) and linen weaving improved in the 16th century. Mary Stewart Queen of Scots is known to have been an avid embroiderer. 16th century designs usually involve
scrolling vines and regional flowers (for example, the Bradford carpet). They often
incorporate animal heraldry and the coat of arms of the maker. Production continued through
the 19th century. Victorian embroidered carpet compositions include highly illusionistic,
3-dimensional flowers. Patterns for tiled carpets made of a number of squares, called Berlin
wool work, were introduced in Germany in 1804, and became extremely popular in England in the 1830s.
Production of knotted pile carpet
Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been
used in the production of European and Oriental carpets.
The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers
may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually 1 to 4) rows of
weft.
There are several styles of knotting, but the two main types of knot are the symmetrical (also called Turkish or
Ghiordes) and asymmetrical (also called Persian or Senna).
Contemporary centers of oriental carpet production are: Iran, Pakistan, India, Turkey, Northern Africa, the Caucasus, Nepal,
Spain, Turkmenistan, and Tibet.
The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national
flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs).
Child labour has often been used in Asia. The Rugmark labelling scheme used throughout
Europe and North America assures that child labour has not
been used: importers pay for the labels, and the revenue collected is used to monitor centres of production and educate
previously exploited children.
Fibers & yarns used in carpet
Carpet can be made from many single or blended natural and synthetic fibers. Fibers are chosen for durability, appearance, ease of manufacture, and cost. The most
important yarn constructions are:
Wool & wool blended with synthetic fibers: Wool has excellent durability, can be dyed
easily and is fairly abundant. When blended with synthetic fibers such as nylon the durability of wool is increased. Blended wool
yarns are extensively used in production of modern carpet. Wool is relatively expensive.
Nylon: This is the most popular synthetic fiber used in carpet production. Nylon can be
dyed topically or dyed in a molten state (solution dying). Nylon can be printed easily and has
excellent wear characteristics. In carpets Nylon tends to stain easily because it possesses dye
sites on the fiber. These dye sites need to be filled in order to give Nylon any type of stain
resistance. As nylon is petroleum-based it varies in price with the price of oil.
Polypropylene: This polymer is used to produce
carpet yarns because it is cheap, although it is difficult to dye and does not wear as well as wool
or nylon. Large looped Berber carpets made from this fiber are usually only suited for light
domestic use and tend to mat down quickly. Berber carpets with smaller loops tend to be more resilient and retain their new
appearance longer than large looped Berber styles. Commercial grade level-loop carpets have very small loops, and commercial
grade cut-pile styles are well constructed. When made with polypropylene (also called Olefin) these styles wear very well, clean
easily and are suitable for areas with heavy foot traffic such as offices. Commercial grade carpets can be glued directly to the
floor or installed over a 1/4" thick, 8-pound density padding. Outdoor grass carpets are usually made from polypropylene.
Polyester: Polyester Also known as "2GT" or "PET" is used in carpet manufacturing in
both spun and filament constructions. After the price of raw materials for many types of carpet rose in the early 2000s,
polyester became more competitive. Polyester has good physical properties and is inherently stain-resistant because it is
hydrophobic, and, unlike nylon, does not have dye sites. Color is infused in a molten state (solution dyeing). Polyester has the disadvantage that it tends to crush or mat down easily. It is typically used in mid- to
low-priced carpeting
PTT: PTT polymer, also called Sorona (Dupont)or Corterra (Shell), is a variant of
Polyester. Lurgi Zimmer PTT was first patented in 1941, but it was not produced until the
1990s, when Shell Chemicals developed the low-cost method of producing high-quality 1,3 propanediol (PDO), the starting raw
material for PTT Corterra Polymers. PTT is similar to Polyester, but its molecules have a
"kink", similar to a spring, that makes the fiber more crush resistant, resilient, and easy to clean. PTT also does not have dye
sites, and is inherently stain resistant because color is infused in a molten state. Carpets made with PTT dry quickly and are
resistant to mold.
The binding in woven carpet is usually cotton. and the weft is jute.
Carpet binding
Carpet binding is a term used for any material being applied to the edge of a carpet to make a rug. Carpet binding is usually
cotton or nylon, but also comes in many other materials, such as leather. Natural binding, in other words, binding not made from
synthetic material is frequently used with bamboo, grass, and wool rugs, but is often used with carpet made from other
materials.
Early carpets
The Pazyryk Carpet, among the oldest surviving carpets in the world.
The hand-knotted pile carpet probably originated in southern Central Asia between the
3rd and 2nd millennium BC.
The earliest surviving pile carpet in the world is called the "Pazyryk Carpet", dating from the 5th-4th century
BCE. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in
1949 from a Siberian burial ground where it had been preserved in ice in the valley of Pazyryk.
The origin of this carpet is attributed to either the Iranian Scythians or the
Persian Achaemenids. This carpet is 200 x 183
cm (6'6" x 6'0") and has 360,000 knots/m².[1]
The earliest group of surviving knotted pile carpets was produced under Seljuk rule in
the first half of the 13th century on the Anatolian peninsula. The eighteen extant works are
often referred to as the Konya Carpets. The central field of these large carpets is a repeated geometrical pattern. The borders
are ornamented with a large-scale, stylized, angular calligraphy called Kufic, pseudo-Kufic, or
Kufesque.
Turkish carpets
Carpets, whether knotted or flat woven (kilim) are among the best known art forms produced by the Turks from time immemorial.
There are environmental, sociological, economic, and religious reasons for the widespread art of carpet weaving among the Turkish
people from Central Asia to Turkey.
The geographical regions where Turks have lived throughout the centuries lie in the temperate zone. Temperature fluctuations
between day and night, summer and winter may vary greatly. Turks-nomadicor pastoral, agrarian or town-dwellers, living in tents
or in sumptuous houses in large cities-have protected themselves from the extremes of the cold weather by covering the floors,
and sometimes walls and doorways, with carpets. The carpets are always hand made of wool or sometimes cotton, with occasional
additions of silk. These carpets are natural barriers against the cold. The flat woven kilims which are frequently embroidered
are used as blankets, curtains, and covers over sofas or as cushion covers.
In general, Turks take their shoes off upon entering a house. Thus, the dust and dirt of the outdoors are not tracked
inside.The floor coverings remain clean, and the inhabitants of the house, if need be, can comfortably rest on the floor. In the
traditional households, women and girls take up carpet and kilim weaving as a hobby as well as a means of earning money. Even
technological advances which promoted factory-made carpets could not hamper the production of rug weaving at cottage-industry
level. Although synthetic dyes have been in use for the last 150 years, hand made carpets are still considered far superior to
industrial carpeting.
Turkish carpets are among the most sought after household items all over the world. Their rich colors, warm tones, and
extraordinary patterns with traditional motifs have contributed to the status that Turkish carpets have maintained since the 13th
century. Marco Polo, who traveled through Anatolia in the late 13th century, commented on the beauty and artistry of the carpets.
A number of carpets from this period, known as the Seljuk carpets, were discovered in several mosques in central Anatolia. These
were under many layers of subsequently placed carpets. The Seljuk carpets are today in the museums in Konya and Istanbul. It is
very exciting to imagine that we may be looking at the very same carpets that Marco Polo praised in the year 1272.
Turkish carpets in the 15th and 16th centuries are best known through European paintings. For example, in the works of Lotto
(15th century Italian painter) and Holbein (16th century Germanpainter), Turkish carpets are seen under the feet of the Virgin
Mary, or in secular paintings, on tables. In the 17th century, when the Netherlands became a powerful mercantile country, Turkish
carpets graced many Dutch homes. The Dutch painter Vermeer represented Turkish carpets predominantly to indicate the high
economic and social status of the persons in his paintings. Turkey carpets, as they were known, were too valuable to be put on
floors, except under the feet of the Holy Mother and royalty.
Anyone who enters a mosque has to take off his/her shoes. The mosque is the common house of a Muslim community, therefore,
shoes are cast off before the door. Moreover, the ritual of prayer requires the faithful to kneel and touch the ground with one s
forehead in humility before God. There are no chairs or benches in a mosque, only carpets. A Turkish mosque is often covered from
wall to wall with several layers of carpets.
The Turkish carpets have exuberant colors, motifs, and patterns. No two carpets are the same; each one is a creation from a
new. Because traditionally women have woven the carpets, this is one art form that is rarely appreciated as being the work of a
known or a specific artist. Nevertheless, the Turkish women silently continue to create some of the most stunning examples of
works of art to be distributed all over Turkey and the world.
Persian and Anatolian carpets
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The Persian carpet is an essential part of Persian (Iranian) art and culture.
Carpet-weaving is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Persian culture and art, and
dates back to the Bronze Age.
The earliest surviving corpus of Persian carpets come from the Safavid dynasty
(1501-1736) in the 16th century. However, painted depictions prove a longer history of production. There is much variety among
classical Persian carpets of the 16th and 17th century. Common motifs include scrolling vine networks, arabesques, palmettes, cloud bands,
medallions, and overlapping geometric compartments rather than animals and humans. This is because Islam, the dominant religion in that part of the world, forbids their depiction. Still, some show figures engaged
either in the hunt or feasting scenes. The majority of these carpets are wool, but several
silk examples produced in Kashan survive.
Pakistani and Indian carpets
The art of weaving developed in the region, comprising Pakistan, at a time when few civilizations knew about it. Excavations
at Moenjodaro and Harappa - ancient Hindu cities of Indus Valley civilization - have established
that the people knew the use of spindles and spun a wide variety of weaving materials. In fact, some historians are of the view
that it was the Indus Valley civilization that of the first time developed the use of woven textiles.
However, carpet weaving of Pakistan can be traced back to the inception of Mughal Dynasty, when the last successor of Timur,
Babar, extended his rule from Kabul to India, to found the Mughal Empire in the early 16th century. However, historians believe
that carpet making was first introduced to the region now constituting Pakistan as far back as the 11th Century with the coming
of the first Muslim conquerors, the Ghaznavids and the Ghauris from the West. Established Carpet weaving in Indo-Pak
Sub-Continent started under the patronage of the Mughals, when Indian craftsmen adopted Persian techniques and designs. The
carpets woven in Punjab at that time - often called Lahore carpets - made use of the motifs and the decorative style found in
Mughal architecture.
During the Mughal period the carpets made in the Indo-Pak Sub-Continent became so famous that there was a mounting demand for
them abroad. These carpets had a distinctive design and boasted a rich knotting density. The carpets made for the Mughal
emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were of the finest quality. It was during Shah Jahan's reign that Mughal carpet
weaving took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.
At present, hand-knotted carpets are among Pakistan's leading export products and their manufacture is the second largest
cottage and small industry. Pakistani craftsmen have the capacity to produce any type of carpet using all the popular motif
gulls, medallions, paisleys, traceries, geometric designs in various combinations.
Oriental carpets in Europe
Oriental carpets began to appear in Europe after the Crusades in the 11th century. Until the
mid-18th century they were mostly used on walls and tables. Except in royal or ecclesiastical settings they were considered too
precious to cover the floor. Starting in the 13th century Oriental carpets begin to appear in paintings (notably from Italy,
Flanders, England, France, and the Netherlands). Carpets of Indo-Persian design were introduced to Europe via the Dutch, British,
and French East India Companies of the 17th and 18th century.
Spanish carpets
Although isolated instances of carpet production pre-date the Muslim invasion of Spain, the Hispano-Moresque examples are the earliest significant body of European-made carpets. Documentary
evidence shows production beginning in Spain as early as the 10th century AD. The earliest extant Spanish carpet, the so-called
Synagogue carpet, is a unique survival dated to the 14th century. The earliest group of
Hispano-Moresque carpets, Admiral carpets (also know as armorial
carpets), has an all-over geometric, repeat pattern punctuated by blazons of noble, Christian Spanish families. The
variety of this design was analyzed most thoroughly by May Beattie. Many of the 15th-century,
Spanish carpets rely heavily on designs originally developed on the Anatolian Peninsula. Carpet production continued after the
Reconquest of Spain and eventual expulsion of the Muslim population in the 15th century.
16th-century Renaissance Spanish carpet design is a derivative of silk textile design. Two of the most popular motifs are wreaths
and pomegranates.
French carpets
-
In 1608 Henry IV initiated the French production of "Turkish style" carpets under
the direction of Pierre Dupont. This production was soon moved to the Savonnerie factory in Chaillot just west of Paris. The earliest, well-known group produced by the Savonnerie,
then under the direction of Simon Lourdet, are the carpets that were produced in the early
years of Louis XIV's reign. They are densely ornamented with flowers, sometimes in
vases or baskets, against dark blue or brown grounds in deep borders. The designs are based on Netherlandish and Flemish textiles
and paintings. The most famous Savonnerie carpets are the series made for the Grande Galerie and the Galerie d'Apollon in the
Palais du Louvre between c. 1665-1685. These 105 masterpieces, made under the artistic
direction of Charles Le Brun, were never installed, as Louis XIV moved the court to
Versailles in 1688. Their design combines rich acanthus leaves, architectural framing, and mythological scenes (inspired by Cesare Ripa's Iconologie) with emblems of Louis XIV's royal power.
Pierre-Josse Perrot is the best-known of the mid-eighteenth-century carpet designers. His many
surviving works and drawings display graceful rococo s-scrolls, central rosettes, shells, acanthus leaves, and floral swags. The
Savonnerie manufactory was moved to the Gobelins in Paris in 1826.
The Beauvais manufactory, better known for their tapestry, also made knotted pile carpets
from 1780 to 1792. Carpet production in small, privately owned workshops in the town of Aubusson began in 1743. Carpets produced in France employ the symmetrical knot.
English carpets
Knotted pile carpet weaving technology probably came to England in the early 16th century with Flemish Calvinists fleeing religious persecution. Because many of
these weavers settled in South-eastern England in Norwich the 14 extant 16th and 17th century
carpets are sometimes referred to as "Norwich carpets." These works are either adaptations of Anatolian or Indo-Persian designs
or employ Elizabethan-Jacobean scrolling vines and blossoms. All but one are dated or bear a coat of arms. Like the French,
English weavers used the symmetrical knot. There are documented and surviving examples of carpets from three 18th-century
manufactories: Exeter (1756-1761, owned by Claude Passavant, 3 extant carpets), Moorfields
(1752-1806, owned by Thomas Moore, 5 extant carpets), and Axminster (1755-1835, owned by
Thomas Whitty, numerous extant carpets). Exeter and Moorfields were both staffed with
renegade weavers from the French Savonnerie and, therefore, employ the weaving structure of that factory and Perrot-inspired
designs. Neoclassical designer Robert Adam supplied designs for both Moorfields and
Axminster carpets based on Roman floor mosaics and coffered ceilings. Some of the most well-known rugs of his design were made
for Syon House, Osterley Park House, Harewood House, Saltram House, and Newby Hall. Six of Axminster carpets are known as the "Lansdowne" group. These have a tripartite design with
reeded circles and baskets of flowers in the central panel flanked by diamond lozenges in the side panels. Axminster Rococo
designs often have a brown ground and include birds copied from popular, contemporary engravings. Carpets will forever be
associated with the town of Kidderminster in Worcestershire, United Kingdom. This was the heart of the UK carpet industry throughout the industrial
revolution. Even now, a large percentage of the 55,000 population town still seek employment in this industry.
Scandinavian carpets
The traditional Scandinavian and Finnish carpet is the rya, made from hand-knotted wool.
Dating from the 15th century, the first ryas were coarse, long-piled, heavy covers used by fishermen instead of furs. The rugs
became lighter and more ornamental. By the 19th century they were often splendid festive tapestries. Now, the rya is a painting
in textile, with individual artists identifiable by the colors, patterns and techniques.
Modern carpeting and installation
Macro shot of Berber carpeting
Carpeting is an attached floor covering made of a heavy, thick fabric, usually woven or
felted, often wool, but also cotton, hemp, straw, or a synthetic counterpart. Polypropylene, commonly called Olefin, is a very common pile yarn, as is nylon. It is typically knotted or
glued to a base weave. It is made in breadths of 12 or 15 feet to be cut, seamed with a seaming iron and seam tape (formerly it
was sewn together) and affixed to a floor over a cushioned underlay (pad) using nails, tack strips (known in the UK as carpet rods or stair rods, when used on stairs),
(gripper) or adhesives, thus distinguishing it from a rug or mat which
are loose-laid floor coverings. In the UK carpets are still manufactured for Pubs & Clubs in a narrow width of 27" (0.69m)
and is then sewn to size. Carpeting which covers an entire room area is loosely referred to as 'wall-to-wall,' but carpet can be
installed over any portion thereof with use of appropriate transition moldings where the carpet meets other types of floor
coverings. Carpeting is more than just a single item; it is, in fact, a system comprising the carpet itself, the carpet backing
(often made of latex), the cushion, and a method of installation. 'Carpet tiles' are squares of carpet, typically 0.5m square,
that is melted into high-density vinyl that can be used to cover a floor. They are usually only used in commercial settings and
are affixed using a special pressure sensitive glue, which holds it into place while allowing easy removal.(in an office
environment, for example) or to allow rearrangement in order to spread wear.
Modern carpeting is often attached to the floor (or stairways) of a building and, when considered permanently attached, would
be part of the real property which includes the building.
See also
References
- Aslanapa, Oktay. One Thousand Years of Turkish Carpets. Translated and edited by William A. Edmonds. Istanbul: Eren
1988.
- Day, Susan, ed. and trans. Great Carpets of the World. New York: The Vêndome Press, 1996.
- Dimand, Maurice Sven and Jean Mailey. Oriental Rugs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1973.
- Pope, Arthur Upham. A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the Present. Vol. XI, Carpets, Chapter 55. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1938-9.
- Sherrill, Sarah B. Carpets and Rugs of Europe and America. New York: Abbeville Press, 1996.
- Stone, Peter F. The Oriental Rug Lexicon. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.
- "The Carpet Primer" The Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI). Dalton, GA
- Fletcher,Alan J. The Complete Carpet Buying Guide. Portland Oregon: AJ Books 2006.
External links
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