Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Email
Answers.com

foster care

 
Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health:

Foster Care

Home > Library > Health > Children's Health Encyclopedia

Definition

Foster care is full-time substitute care of children outside their own home by people other than their biological or adoptive parents or legal guardians.

Description

Children who are removed from their biological or adoptive parents, or other legal guardians, are placed in foster care in a variety of settings. They may be placed in the care of relatives other than the family members involved in the neglect or abuse (kin placement), non-relatives, therapeutic or treatment foster care, or in an institution or group home.

Children come to foster care for a number of reasons. In many cases, they have suffered physical or sexual abuse, or neglect at home, and are placed in a safe environment. A small percentage of children are in foster care because their parents feel unable to control them, and their behavior may have led to delinquency or fear of harm to others. Some children have been neglected by their parents or legal guardians, or have parents or legal guardians who are unable to take care of them because of substance abuse, incarceration, or mental health problems. These children are placed into custodial care while the parents or guardians receive treatment or counseling, or fulfill their sentences.

In all foster care cases, the child's biological or adoptive parents, or other legal guardians, temporarily give up legal custody of the child. (The guardian gives up custody, but not necessarily legal guardianship.) A child may be placed in foster care with the parents' consent. In a clear case of abuse or neglect, a court can order a child into foster care without the parents' or guardians' consent. Foster care does not necessarily mean care by strangers. If a government agency decides a child must be removed from the home, the child may be placed with relatives or with a family friend. Children may also be placed in a group home, where several foster children live together with a staff of caregivers. Therapeutic or treatment foster care can be in a group home or foster home with a specific structure and treatment focus. Foster homes are the most well-known option. The child temporarily becomes a part of another family, either with other foster children, the family's biological or adoptive children, or alone. State or county social service agencies oversee foster care decisions, although they may also work with private foundations.

Foster parents must be licensed by the agency that handles a specific region's foster care. The foster home must pass an inspection for health and safety and, in most states, the parents must attend training sessions covering issues of x how to deal with problems. When a child is placed, the foster family takes responsibility for feeding and clothing the child, getting the child to school and to appointments, and doing any of the usual things a child's parents or legal guardians might be called to do. The foster parents might also need to meet with the foster child's therapist and will meet regularly with the child's caseworker as well. The foster parent aims to help the foster child develop normally in a safe, family environment.

Foster parents usually receive money for taking in foster children. They are expected to use the money to buy the child's food, clothing, school supplies, and other incidentals. Most of the foster parent's responsibilities toward the foster child are clearly defined in a legal contract. Foster parents do not become the guardians of foster children; legal guardianship remains with the state agency.

Foster placements may last for a single day or several weeks; some continue for years. If the parents give up their rights permanently, or their rights to their child are severed by the court, the foster family may adopt the foster child or the child may be placed for adoption by strangers. Foster parenting is meant to be an in-between stage, while a permanent placement for the child is settled. As such, it is stressful and uncertain, but for many families very necessary.

Federal money supports most foster care programs, and federal law governs foster care policy. The Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Reform Act of 1980 emphasizes two aims of foster care. One is to preserve the child's family, if at all possible. Children are placed in foster care only after other options have failed, and social service agencies work with the family to resolve its problems so that children can return to their homes. The second aim of the Child Welfare Reform Act is to support the so-called "permanency planning." This means that if a child must be removed from the home, the social service agency handling the case can decide quickly whether or not the child will ever be returned. If it seems likely that parents will not be able to care for their children again, their parental rights may be terminated so that the child is free to be adopted. This policy is articulated in this law in order to prevent children from living too long in an unstable and uncertain situation.

The goal of foster care is the care of the child within the child welfare system, but also is to place all appropriate and available services at the disposal of the parents so that they can create a safe, fit home environment for their children when they are reunited. Children in the child welfare system are also overseen by a multitude of agencies. The caseworker from the state or county social services agency oversees the child's placement and makes regular reports to the court. Others involved in the child's case are private service providers (including foster homes and group homes), welfare agencies, mental health counselors, substance abuse treatment centers (for the child or the parent), and Medicaid (federal medical insurance for seniors and children at risk).

Demographics

In 1980, about 300,000 children in the United States spent some time in foster care placement. By 2001, there were nearly 800,000 children in foster care, with 540,000 children in the system at any given time. The majority of these children were the victims of abuse. The emergence of widespread homelessness, substance abuse (especially crack and methamphetamines), unemployment, increased incarceration rates, street violence, and HIV/AIDS have all impacted poor communities. Children from families with multiple problems flooded the child welfare system. Young children with physical handicaps, mental delays or mental illness, and complex medical conditions have become the fastest-growing foster care population.

The foster care population is quite young. About one-fourth of all children entering foster care for the first time are infants. Sixty percent of foster children are under four years old. Teenagers comprise one-third of the foster care population. Minority children comprise most of the foster care population, with the largest groups being African American and American Indian children.

Poor children are more likely to be in foster care than middle-class children because their families have fewer resources. Illness or loss of a job may be devastating to a poor family with no savings and no relatives who can afford to assist them. These children are also more likely to stay in foster care longer or to have been in foster care since infancy. Also, children of alcoholics or drug abusers are at high risk for neglect or abuse, and comprise 75 percent of all placements.

More than half (57 percent) of all children in foster care are returned to their original homes; however, reunification rates have declined in the 1990s and early twenty-first century. Children also spend more time in the system. The average length of stay for a child in foster care is 33 months. However, some spend a very short time in a foster home, and others are there for their entire childhoods, "aging out" at 18 when they become legal adults.

Instead of reunification, more children are being adopted from foster care. Most states doubled, and some tripled, the number of foster care adoptions since 1997. This steady increase is a response to the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) of 1997 that recommends termination of parental rights and encourages adoption if a child has been in foster care for 15 out of the previous 22 months. This can be waived by the court if the parents are making substantive progress or the caseworker believes that legal guardianship, but not adoption, is in the child's best interests.

Half of all children in foster care live with nonrelative foster caregivers; about one-fourth live with relatives, and this number is growing. ASFA also recognized kinship caregivers as legitimate placements. It was customary for many poor families to take in a child informally when the child's parents or legal guardians were incarcerated, in treatment, or had died, but ASFA allowed relatives to take care of a child legally and receive financial help, and also opened the doors to a number of agencies and services the relatives could not afford.

Common Problems

In most cases, children placed in foster care have been subjected to some form of abuse or neglect, and being removed from familiar surroundings is, in itself, usually highly traumatic. Children in foster care may have nightmares, problems sleeping or eating, and may be depressed, angry, and confused. Many young children in foster care are unable to understand why they have been taken from their parents. Even if a child is in some sense relieved to be out of a home that was dangerous, the child may still miss the parents or legal guardians, and may imagine that there is something he or she must do to get back to them. There is evidence that children from abusive and neglectful homes start to feel better in foster care; however, separation is almost always difficult for children, regardless of the circumstances.

Half of all foster children spend as much as two years in foster care and are moved from placement to placement at least three times. This leads not only to uncertainty and lack of stability in the child's life, but some of these placements may be inappropriate for the child's specific circumstances. This often is due to the lack of qualified, licensed foster caregivers, but it can also occur as a result of inexperienced or overloaded caseworkers trying to get through their caseloads.

Foster care can be difficult for foster parents as well. A child who has been neglected or abused suffers psychological damage that may make him or her withdrawn, immature, aggressive, or otherwise difficult to reach. Children with severe medical and mental problems can tax caregivers. Foster placements sometimes fail because these surrogate parents simply cannot handle the demands of a troubled foster child.

Unfortunately, the number of foster caregivers has been declining since the mid-1980s as the demand for placements has increased. States have responded by licensing responsible adults who were not married (even divorced men and women) and reaching out to seniors and children's relatives. In some areas, single mothers make up a large proportion of foster parents.

In 2002, about 405,000 children were placed in court-appointed kinship care. Caseworkers placed almost 140,000 more in the care of relatives, without court intervention. Many of these kinship caregivers are grandparents or elderly aunts and uncles. Kinship caregivers offer family support and stability, and more frequent contact with parents or legal guardians, and siblings. They also are more apt to get children to talk to them about their problems, and the presence of relatives can help ease the trauma of separation from parents.

Nevertheless, kinship caregivers, especially grandparents, face a number of challenges. Most of the formal and informal kinship caregivers experience economic hardship as they take in one or more of their relative's children. Nearly two-thirds of these placements are with financially strapped families who may not have essentials such as a car seat, crib, or toys. They also may not have adequate medical insurance; however, Medicaid often will cover the foster child in a formal kinship arrangement. Grandparents may not know how to raise a child in today's world, with the amount of freedoms or lack of them that children experience today. They may not be able to help their foster children with homework. Many social service agencies offer counseling, homework help, and even home tutoring for both the child and caregiver.

One other problem inherent in the child welfare system is the teenager who "ages out," or turns 18 and moves out of foster care to live independently. Many teenagers mark time within the system, without adequate preparation for the transition to adulthood. Less than one-fourth of social service agencies provide employment services for teenagers. Only 17 percent provide employment and career assessments, and 16 percent provide job-training. One-fourth offer vocational training. Without help, these teenagers often never go on to college, do not find good jobs if they find jobs at all, and become prey to bad influences on the street. If they have children of their own, these offspring fall back into the child welfare system just as they did. Adequate training, counseling, and preparation can break this cycle.

In addition, children in all types of foster care face more challenges financially, emotionally, and developmentally. A study by the Child Welfare League of America in 2004 showed that children in foster care experienced more health and developmental problems than children who had similar economic circumstances but lived with their parents or legal guardians. Foster children also have more neglect, abuse, family dysfunction, poverty, and emotional problems. This may be a direct result of the reasons for their initial placement, but these conditions continue throughout foster care. Another reason for these results may be that foster children are given more frequent and thorough medical and psychological care than their counterparts.

Parental Concerns

Other foster care placements are made by families who cannot afford medical or psychological services for their children. These children may have multiple disabilities or severe social or mental disorders that have depleted the family's financial and emotional resources. Convinced by social workers that this option is the only one available to them, they give up their parental rights in order to get their children into proper treatment. According to the U.S General Accounting Office, 12,700 children were placed into the child welfare system or the juvenile justice system to receive mental health services in 2001. Despite the noble reasons for placing these children in foster care, the parents' names are placed on state registries as child abusers, and they have to petition the court and prove their fitness to get their children returned to their homes.

See also Child abuse.

Resources

Books

Davies, Nancy Millichap. Foster Care. NY: Franklin Watts, 1994.

Periodicals

Bass, Sandra, et al. "Children, Families, and Foster Care: Analysis and Recommendations." The Future of Children. 14, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 4–30.

Hansen, Robin L., et al. "Comparing the Health Status of Low-Income Children in and out of Foster Care." Child Welfare 83, no. 4 (July-August 2004): 367–81.

The David and Lucile Packard Foundation. "Children, Families, and Foster Care: Analysis." (Executive Summary) The Future of Children 14, no. 1 (Winter 2004): S1.

Organizations

Foster Care Children. 507 North Sullivan Road Suite A-6. Spokane Valley, WA 99037. (509) 924-3175. Web site: www.fostercarechildren.com.

Web Sites

Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care. Available online at: .

[Article by: Janie Franz A. Woodward]


Search unanswered questions...

Enter a question here...
Search: All sources Community Q&A Reference topics

Gale Encyclopedia of US History:

Foster Care

Top
Home > Library > History, Politics & Society > US History Encyclopedia

Approximately three million reports of child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and abandonment) come to the attention of public child welfare agencies in the United States every year. Hundreds of thousands of these reports are considered serious enough to be investigated, and about one-third are substantiated or proven. Of the cases that are substantiated, approximately 175,000 to 200,000 are placed into foster care.

Health care professionals refer to foster care as the temporary out-of-home placement for abused and neglected children. Typically, such placements are made in the homes of families specifically recruited and trained to care for troubled children or, increasingly, in the homes of relatives. However, about 20 percent of these children are placed in group homes or residential treatment centers. The placements are supposed to be for as short a period of time as possible, with the primary goal being to return the child to his or her birth parent or parents as soon as it is safe to do so. If the child cannot be returned home within a reasonable period of time, other permanent plans must be made for him or her, particularly adoption.

In the United States, foster care programs are usually administered and delivered by state and local public child welfare agencies. However, public child welfare agencies often contract with private not-for-profit and, to a much lesser extent, private for-profit organizations to provide foster care services.

Although public child welfare agencies are creatures of state governments, the federal government has played an increasingly larger role in child welfare. For example, federal laws have been enacted that provide fiscal incentives to states, in order to encourage them to adopt certain child welfare policies and practices. Also, the federal government has made available increasing amounts of funding, usually on a matching basis, for foster care and adoptions services. In addition, the federal government collects, archives, and disseminates child welfare data and information and provides a modest amount of funding for research.

There were two major pieces of federal child welfare legislation enacted in the late twentieth century. The first was the Adoptions Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980, more popularly known as P.L. 96-272. This legislation grew out of more than six years of congressional hearings into the problems confronting the child welfare system in the United States. The act placed greater emphasis on strengthening and preserving families and, in fact, placed as much emphasis on this new policy thrust as it did on protecting and caring for abused and neglected children. Consistent with this, one of the major priorities of the legislation was to increase services to prevent the out-of-home placement of children and to reduce the numbers of children being placed into foster care. Lawmakers also hoped that the act would result in shorter lengths of stay in placement, the elimination of foster care "drift" or the "bouncing" of children from one placement to another, improved training and supervision of foster parents, improved training for child welfare workers, and the delivery of more effective services to children in placement.

The law mandated that individualized treatment plans be developed for each child placed into foster care. It required that each child in placement had to have his or her case reviewed every six months to examine the status of the case and to determine whether the placement needed to be continued or if other permanent plans needed to be made.

Unfortunately, despite the hopes and expectations of reformers, the law had relatively little impact on the child welfare system. Beginning in the mid-1980s, the numbers and rates of children placed into foster care increased dramatically. This trend continued well into the 1990s. In fact, the best available data suggests the foster care population more than doubled between 1985 and 1999. Although significant amounts of money were spent on placement prevention services, there is virtually no credible scientific evidence that they had the desired impact. Even more disturbing is the fact that many class action lawsuits were filed against state and local public child welfare systems for abusive, unprofessional, and unconstitutional practices after P.L. 96-272 was passed. This statistic suggests that many public child welfare systems may have deteriorated during this period when policymakers and reformers expected them to improve.

In 1997 Congress passed the Adoptions and Safe Families Act, or ASFA. In sharp contrast to P.L. 96-272, this legislation places more emphasis on protecting children and makes it easier to remove them from dangerous home environments. The legislation calls for placing more of the burden on abusive and neglectful parents to demonstrate that they can properly care for their children before they will be returned to them. It also reduces the amount of time children have to stay in foster care from eighteen months to twelve months before permanent plans have to be made for them.

By 2002 most child welfare officials felt it was too soon to make any definitive statements about the impact of ASFA. Preliminary data suggest that increasing numbers of children are being adopted, although the numbers may be leveling off. Also, there are signs that the size of the foster care population may be stabilizing, or even declining. However, the length of stay in foster care for children awaiting adoption continues to average three years. For these children it can be said that the state has virtually become their parent, even if by default.

Bibliography

Schwartz, Ira M., and Gideon Fishman. Kids Raised by the Government. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1999.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. The AFCARS Report. Washington, D.C.: Administration for Children and Families, 2000.

—Ira M. Schwartz

Columbia Encyclopedia:

foster care

Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Columbia Encyclopedia
foster care, generally, care of children on a full-time, temporary basis by persons other than their own parents. Also known as boarding-home care, foster care is intended to offer a supportive family environment to children whose natural parents cannot raise them because of the parents' physical or mental illness, the child's behavioral difficulties, or problems within the family environment, e.g., child abuse, alcoholism, extreme poverty, or crime. Such children are usually wards of the state. They may be placed by a state-approved agency in group homes, institutions (such as residential treatment centers), or with families who receive some payment toward care. The child's parents may retain their parental rights, and the child may ultimately return home. Under permanent foster care the agency has guardianship; the child may then be available for adoption by the foster parents or others. Foster care can also provide a supervised setting for adults with mental or emotional disabilities who cannot care adequately for themselves. The concept of foster care has been extended in recent years to include care for elderly persons, on a fee basis, in the homes of people who are not family members.

Wikipedia on Answers.com:

Foster care

Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
"Foster child" redirects here. For the 1989 film, see Foster Child.
This article is about the modern child welfare system. For the social practice of children being raised by families not their own, see Fosterage.
Family law
Entering into marriage
Legal states similar
to marriage
Dissolution of marriage
Issues affecting children
Conflict of laws
Related areas

Foster care is the term used for a system in which a minor who has been made a ward is placed in the private home of a state certified caregiver referred to as a "foster parent".

The state via the family court and child protection agency stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day to day care of said minor. The foster parent is remunerated by the state for their services.

Foster care is intended to be a short term situation until a permanent placement can be made:[1]

  • Reunification with the biological parent(s)
    • When it is deemed in the child's best interest. This is generally the first choice.
  • Adoption
    • Preferably by a biological family member such as an aunt or grandparent.
    • If no biological family member is willing or able to adopt, the next preference is for the child to be adopted by the foster parents or by someone else involved in the child's life (such as a teacher or coach). This is to maintain continuity in the child's life.
    • If neither above option are available, the child may be adopted by someone who is a stranger to the child.
  • Permanent transfer of guardianship
  • If none of these options are viable the plan for the minor may enter OPPLA (Other Planned Permanent Living Arrangement). This option allows the child to stay in custody of the state and the child can stay placed in a foster home, with a relative or an Independent Living Center or long term care facility (for children with development disabilities, physical disabilities or mental disabilities).
Contents

Foster care placement

547,415 children were in publicly supported foster care in the United States in September 2000.[2] In 2009, there were 423,773 children in foster care, a drop of about 20% in a decade.[3]

In 2009, there were about 123,000 children ready for adoptive families in the nation's foster care systems.[4] African American children represented 41% of children in foster care, white children represented 40% and Hispanic children represented 15% in the year 2000.[2]

Children may enter foster care via voluntary or involuntary means. Voluntary placement may occur when a biological parent or lawful guardian is unable to care for a child. Involuntary placement occurs when a child is removed from their biological parent or lawful guardian due to the risk or actual occurrence of physical or psychological harm. In the US, most children enter foster care due to neglect.[5] If a biological parent or lawful guardian is unwilling to care for a child, the child is deemed to be dependent and is placed under the care of the child protection agency.

Regulation, administration, and oversight

The policies regarding foster care as well as the criteria to be met in order to become a foster parent vary according to legal jurisdiction.

In the United States, foster home licensing requirements vary from state to state,but are generally overseen by each state's Department of Social Services or Human Services. In some states, counties have this responsibility. Each state's services are monitored by the federal Department of Health and Human Services through reviews such as Child and Family Services Reviews, Title IV-E Foster Care Eligibility Reviews, Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System and Statewide Automated Child Welfare Information System Assessment Reviews.[6]

The foster parent licensing process is often similar to the process to become licensed to adopt. It requires preparation classes as well as an application process. The application varies but may include: a minimum age, verification that your income allows you to meet your expenses, a criminal record check at local, state and federal levels including finger printing and no prior record of child abuse or neglect; a reference from a doctor to ensure that all household members are free from diseases that a child could catch and in sufficient health to parent a child and; letters of reference from an employer and others who know them.

Children found to be unable to function in a foster home may be placed in Residential Treatment Centers (RTCs) or other such group homes. In theory, the focus of treatment in such facilities is to prepare the child for a return to a foster home, to an adoptive home, or to the birth parents when applicable. But two major reviews of the scholarly literature have questioned these facilities' effectiveness.[7] There are some children in foster care who are difficult to place in permanent homes through the normal adoption process. These children are often said to require “special-needs adoption.” In this context, "special needs" can include situations where children have specific chronic medical problems, mental health issues, behavioral problems, and learning disabilities. In some cases, sibling groups, and older children qualify as "special needs."[8] Governments offer a variety of incentives and services to facilitate this class of adoptions.[9]

Funding and system incentives

A law passed by Congress in 1961 allowed AFDC (welfare) payments to pay for foster care which was previously made only to children in their own homes. This made aided funding foster care for states and localities, facilitating rapid growth. In some cases, the state of Texas paid mental treatment centers as much as $101,105 a year per child. Observers of the growth trend note that a county will only continue to receive funding while it keeps the child in its care. This may create a "perverse financial incentive" to place and retain children in foster care rather than leave them with their parents, and incentives are sometimes set up for maximum intervention. A National Coalition for Child Protection Reform issue paper states "children often are removed from their families `prematurely or unnecessarily' because federal aid formulas give states `a strong financial incentive' to do so rather than provide services to keep families together."[10]

Findings of a grand jury investigation in Santa Clara, California:[11]

The Grand Jury heard from staff members of the DFCS and others outside the department that the department puts too much money into "back-end services," i.e., therapists and attorneys, and not enough money into "front-end" or basic services. The county does not receive as much in federal funds for "front-end" services, which could help solve the problems causing family inadequacies, as it receives for out-of-home placements or foster care services. In other words, the Agency benefits, financially, from placing children in foster homes.

United States

Foster care legislation since 1990

Average length of stay in foster care in the U.S.

In 1997, the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) was passed.[12] This reduced the time children are allowed to remain in foster care before being available for adoption. The new law requires state child welfare agencies to identify cases where "aggravated circumstances" make permanent separation of child from the birth family the best option for the safety and well-being of the child. One of the main components of ASFA is the imposition of stricter time limits on reunification efforts. Proponents of ASFA claimed that before the law was passed, the lack of such legislation was the reason it was common for children to languish in care for years with no permanent living situation identified.

Opponents of ASFA argued that the real reason children languished in foster care was that too many were taken needlessly from their parents in the first place. Since ASFA did not address this, opponents said, it would not accomplish its goals, and would only slow a decline in the foster care population that should have occurred anyway because of a decline in reported child abuse.[13]

Ten years after ASFA became law, the number of children in foster care on any given day has been about 7,000 fewer than when ASFA was passed[14]

The Foster Care Independence Act of 1999, helps foster youth who are aging out of care to achieve self-sufficiency. The U.S. government has also funded the Education and Training Voucher Program in recent years in order to help youth who age out of care to obtain college or vocational training at a free or reduced cost. Chafee and ETV money is administered by each state as they see fit.

The Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 is the most recent piece of major federal legislation addressing the foster care system. This bill extended various benefits and funding for foster children between the age of 18 and 21 and for Indian children in tribal areas. The legislation also strengthens requirements for states in their treatment of siblings and introduces mechanisms to provide financial incentives for guardianship and adoption.[15][16]

Constitutional issues

In May 2007, the United States 9th Circuit Court of Appeals found in ROGERS v. COUNTY OF SAN JOAQUIN, No. 05-16071[17] that a CPS social worker who removed children from their natural parents into foster care without obtaining judicial authorization, was acting without due process and without exigency (emergency conditions) violated the 14th Amendment and Title 42 United State Code Section 1983. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that a state may not make a law that abridges "... the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States" and no state may "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Title 42 United States Code Section 1983[18] states that citizens can sue in federal courts any person that acting under a color of law to deprive the citizens of their civil rights under the pretext of a regulation of a state.[19]

In case of Santosky v. Kramer, 455 US 745, Supreme Court reviewed a case when Department of Social Services removed two younger children from their natural parents only because the parents had been previously found negligent toward their oldest daughter.[20] When the third child was only three days old, DSS transferred him to a foster home on the ground that immediate removal was necessary to avoid imminent danger to his life or health. The Supreme Court vacated previous judgment and stated: "Before a State may sever completely and irrevocably the rights of parents in their natural child, due process requires that the State support its allegations by at least clear and convincing evidence. <..> But until the State proves parental unfitness, the child and his parents share a vital interest in preventing erroneous termination of their natural relationship".[20]

Also District of Columbia Court of Appeals conclude that the lower trial court erred in rejecting the relative custodial arrangement selected by the natural mother who tried to preserve her relationship with the child.[21] The previous judgment granting the foster mother's adoption petition was reversed, and the case remanded to the trial court to vacate the orders granting adoption and denying custody, and to enter an order granting custody to the child's relative.[21]

In 2007 Deanna Fogarty-Hardwick obtained a jury verdict against Orange County (California) and two of its social workers for violating her Fourteenth Amendment rights to familial association by unlawfully placing her kids in foster care.[22] The $4.9 million verdict grew to a $9.5 million judgment as the County lost each of its successive appeals.[22] The case finally ended in 2011 when the United States Supreme Court denied Orange County's request to overturn the verdict.[23]

Australia

Home-based care, which includes foster care, is provided to children who are in need of care and protection. Children and young people are provided with alternative accommodation while they are unable to live with their parents. As well as foster care, this can include placements with relatives or kin, and residential care. In most cases, children in home-based care are also on a care and protection order.[24]

In some cases children are placed in home-based care following a child protection substantiation and where they are found to be in need of a safer and more stable environment. In other situations parents may be incapable of providing adequate care for the child, or accommodation may be needed during times of family conflict or crisis.[24] In the significant number of cases substance abuse is a major contributing factor.

Respite care is a type of foster care that is used to provide short-term (and often regular) accommodation for children whose parents are ill or unable to care for them on a temporary basis.[24] It is also used to provide a break for the parent or primary carer to hopefully decrease the chances of the situation escalating to one which would lead to the removal of the child(ren).

As with the majority of child protection services, states and territories are responsible for funding home-based care. Non-government organizations are widely used, however, to provide these services.[24]

The Lost Children (Britain-Australia)

Children of the United Kingdom's Children's Migrant Programme

An estimated 150,000 British children were sent to overseas colonies and countries in the commonwealth such as Australia. This practice was in effect from the beginning of the nineteenth century until 1967. Many of these children were sent to orphanages, foster homes and religious institutions, where they were used as a free source of labour and many were severely abused and neglected. These children were classified as orphans although most were not. In the period after World War II the policy was dubbed the "Child Migrants Programme". The prime consideration was money as it was cheaper to care for children in commonwealth countries than it was in the United Kingdom. At least 10,000 children, some as young as 3, were shipped to Australia after the war,[25][26] most to join the ranks of the "Forgotten Australians", the term given for those who experienced care in foster homes and institutions in the 20th century. Among these Forgotten Australians were members of the "Stolen Generation", the children of Australian Aborigines, forcibly removed from their homes and raised in white institutions. In 2008 Australian Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd apologised to the approximately 500,000 "forgotten Australians" and in 2010 British Prime Minister Gordon Brown issued a similar apology to those who were victimised by the Child Migrants Programme.[27][28][29]

Current policy

There is strong emphasis in current Australian policy and practice to keep children with their families wherever possible. In the event that children are placed in home-based care, every effort is made to reunite children with their families wherever possible.[24]

In the case of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in particular, but not exclusively, placing the child within the wider family or community is preferred[24] This is consistent with the Aboriginal Child Placement Principle.[30]

Negative effects

Individuals who were in foster care experience higher rates of physical and psychiatric morbidity than the general population and suffer from not being able to trust and that can lead to placements breaking down.[31] In a study of adults who were in foster care in Oregon and Washington state, they were found to have double the incidence of depression, 20% as compared to 10% and were found to have a higher rate of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans with 25% of those studied having PTSD. Children in foster care have a higher probability of having Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and deficits in executive functioning, anxiety as well as other developmental problems.[32][33][34][35] These children experience higher degrees of incarceration, poverty, homelessness, and suicide. Recent studies in the U.S. suggest that foster care placements are more detrimental to children than remaining in a troubled home.[36][37][38]

Neurodevelopment

Foster care has been shown in various studies to have deleterious consequences on the physical health and mental wellbeing of those who were in foster care. Many children enter foster care at a very young age, a period where the development of mental and psychological processes are at one of their critical peaks. The human brain doesn't fully develop until approximately the age of 25,[39] and one of the most critical periods of brain development occurs in the first 3–4 years. The processes that govern the development of personality traits, stress response and cognitive skills are formed during this period. The developing brain is directly influenced by negative environmental factors including lack of stimulation due to emotional neglect, poor nutrition, exposure to violence in the home environment and child abuse.[citation needed]

Negative environmental influences have a direct effect on all areas of neurodevelopment: neurogenesis (creation of new neurons), apoptosis (death and reabsorption of neurons), migration (of neurons to different regions of the brain), synaptogenesis (creation of synapses), synaptic sculpturing (determining the make-up of the synapse), arborization (the growth of dendritic connections, myelinzation (protective covering of neurons), and an enlargement of the brain's ventricles, which can cause cortical atrophy.[citation needed]

Most of the processes involved in healthy neurodevelopment are predicated upon the establishment of close nurturing relationships and environmental stimulation. Foster children have elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone in comparison to children raised by their biological parents. Elevated cortisol levels can compromise the immune system. (Harden BJ, 2004).[40] Negative environmental influences during this critical period of brain development can have lifelong consequences.[41][42][43][44]

Epigenetic effects of environment

Gene expression can be affected by the environment through epigenetic mechanisms. Negative environmental influences, such as maternal deprivation, child abuse and stress[45][46] have been shown to have a profound effect on gene expression, including transgenerational epigenetic effects in which physiological and behavioral (intellectual) transfer of information across generations-not-yet-conceived is effected. In the Överkalix study in Sweden, the effects of epigentic inheritance were shown to have a direct correlation to the environmental influences faced by the parents and grandparents.[47] Many physiological and behavioral characteristics ascribed to Mendelian inheritance are due in fact to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The implications in terms of foster care and the cost to society as a whole is that the stress, deprivation and other negative environmetal factors many foster children are subjected to has a detrimental effect not only their physical, emotional and cognitive well-being, but that the damage can transcend generations.[48][49][50]

In studies of the adult offspring of Holocaust survivors, parental PTSD was a risk factor for the development of PTSD in adult offspring in comparison to those whose parents went through the Holocaust without developing PTSD. The offspring of survivors with PTSD had lower levels of urinary cortisol excretion, salivary cortisol and enhanced plasma cortisol suppression in response to low dose dexamethasone administration than offspring of survivors without PTSD. Low cortisol levels are associated with parental, particularly maternal, PTSD. This is in contrast to the normal stress response in which cortisol levels are elevated after exposure to a stressor. The results of the study point to the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms.[51][52]

Epigenetic Effects of Abuse

"In addition, the effects of abuse may extend beyond the immediate victim into subsequent generations as a consequence of epigenetic effects transmitted directly to offspring and/or behavioral changes in affected individuals. (Neighh GN et al. 2009)[53]

It has been suggested in various studies that the deleterious epigentic effects may be somewhat ameliorated through pharmacological manipulations in adulthood via the administration of nerve growth factor-inducible protein A,[54] and through the inhibition of a class of enzymes known as the histone deacetylases (HDACs). "HDAC inhibitors (HDACIs) such as Trichostatin A (TSA); "TSA can be used to alter gene expression by interfering with the removal of acetyl groups from histones", and L-methionine an essential amino acid, have been developed for the treatment of a variety of malignancies and neurodegenerative disorders. Drug combination approaches have also shown promise for the treatment of mood disorders including bipolar disorder, anxiety and depression."[55][56]

Post traumatic stress disorder

Regions of the brain associated with stress and post traumatic stress disorder[57]

Children in foster care have a higher incidence of Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).In one study (Dubner and Motta, 1999)[58] 60% of children in foster care who had experienced sexual abuse had PTSD, and 42% of those who had been physically abused fulfilled the PTSD criteria. PTSD was also found in 18% of the children who were not abused. These children may have developed PTSD due to witnessing violence in the home. (Marsenich, 2002).

In a study conducted in Oregon and Washington state, the rate of PTSD in adults who were in foster care for one year between the ages of 14–18 was found to be higher than that of combat veterans, with 25 percent of those in the study meeting the diagnostic criteria as compared to 12–13 percent of Iraq war veterans and 15 percent of Vietnam war veterans, and a rate of 4% in the general population. The recovery rate for foster home alumni was 28.2% as opposed to 47% in the general population.

"More than half the study participants reported clinical levels of mental illness, compared to less than a quarter of the general population".[59][60]

Eating disorders

Foster children are at increased risk for a variety of eating disorders, in comparison to the general population.

Obesity children in foster care are more prone to becoming overweight and obese, and in a study done in the United Kingdom, 35% of foster children experienced an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) once in care.[61]

Hyperphagic Short Stature syndrome (HSS) is a condition characterized by short stature due to insufficient growth hormone production, an excessive appetite (hyperphagia) and mild learning disabilities. While it is believed to have genetic component, HSS is triggered by being exposed to an environment of high psychosocial stress; it is not uncommon in children in foster homes or other stressful environments. HSS improves upon removal from the stressful environment.[62][63][64]

Food Maintenance Syndrome is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is "a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity"; it resembles "the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature". It is hypothesised that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to, it was prevalent amongst 25 percent of the study group in New Zealand.[33]

Bulimia Nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in the general population.[65]

Disorganized attachment

A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants in his study exhibited symptoms of disorganized attachment.[66][67] Children with histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, are at risk of developing psychiatric problems.[68][69][70][71] These children may be described as experiencing trauma as the result of abuse or neglect, inflicted by a primary caregiver, which disrupts the normal development of secure attachment. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment.[70][72][73] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms,[74] as well as depressive, anxiety, and acting-out symptoms.[75][76]

Poverty and homelessness

New York street children; 1890

Nearly half of foster kids in the U.S. become homeless when they turn 18.[77][78] "One of every 10 foster children stays in foster care longer than seven years, and each year about 15,000 reach the age of majority and leave foster care without a permanent family—many to join the ranks of the homeless or to commit crimes and be imprisoned.[79][80]

Three out of 10 of the United States homeless are former foster children.[81] According to the results of the Casey Family Study of Foster Care Alumni, up to 80 percent are doing poorly—with a quarter to a third of former foster children at or below the poverty line, three times the national poverty rate.[82] Very frequently, people who are homeless had multiple placements as children: some were in foster care, but others experienced "unofficial" placements in the homes of family or friends.

Individuals with a history foster care tend to become homeless at an earlier age than those who were not in foster care[citation needed]. The length of time a person remains homeless is prolonged in indiviuals who were in foster care.[83]

Suicide-death rate

Children in foster care are at a greater risk of suicide,[84] the increased risk of suicide is still prevalent after leaving foster care and occurs at a higher rate than the general population. In a small study of twenty-two Texan youths who aged out of the system, 23 percent had a history of suicide attempts.[85]

A Swedish study utilizing the data of almost one million people including 22,305 former foster children who had been in care prior to their teens, concluded:

Former child welfare clients were in year of birth and sex standardised risk ratios (RRs) four to five times more likely than peers in the general population to have been hospitalised for suicide attempts....Individuals who had been in long-term foster care tended to have the most dismal outcome...former child welfare/protection clients should be considered a high-risk group for suicide attempts and severe psychiatric morbidity.[86]

Death rate

Children in foster care have an overall higher mortality rate than children in the general population.[87] A study conducted in Finland among current and former foster children up to age 24 found a higher mortality rate due to substance abuse, accidents, suicide and illness. The deaths due to illness were attributed to an increased incidence of acute and chronic medical conditions and developmental delays among children in foster care.[88]

Georgia Senator Nancy Schaefer published a report "The Corrupt Business of Child Protective Services"[89] stating:

"The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect in 1998 reported that six times as many children died in foster care than in the general public and that once removed to official “safety”, these children are far more likely to suffer abuse, including sexual molestation than in the general population".[89]

Poor academic prospects

Educational outcomes of ex-foster children in the Northwest Alumni Study*[90]
  • 56% completed high school compared to 82% of the general population, although an additional 29% of former foster children received a G.E.D. compared to an additional 5% of the general population.
  • 42.7% completed some education beyond high school.
  • 20.6% completed any degree or certificate beyond high school
  • 16.1% completed a vocational degree; 21.9% for those over 25.
  • 1.8% complete a bachelors degree, 2.7% for over 25, the completion rate for the general population in the same age group is 24%, a sizable difference.
*The study reviewed case records for 659 foster care alumni in Northwest USA, and interviewed 479 of them between September 2000 and January 2002.[90]

Several studies have indicated that foster care children tend to underachieve academically with many never completing high school. In a study conducted in Philadelphia by Johns Hopkins University it was found that; among high school students who are in foster care, have been abused and neglected, or receive out of home placement by the courts, the probability of dropping out of school is greater than 75%.[91]

State abuses

Drug testing

Throughout the 1990s, experimental HIV drugs were tested on HIV-positive foster children at Incarnation Children’s Center in Harlem. The agency has also been accused of racism, some comparing the trials to the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, as 98 percent of children in foster care in New York City belong to ethnic minorities.[92]

Unnecessary/over medication

Studies[93] have revealed that youth in foster care covered by Medicaid insurance receive psychotropic medication at a rate that was 3 times higher than that of Medicaid-insured youth who qualify by low family income. In a review (September 2003 to August 2004) of the medical records of 32,135 Texas foster care 0–19 years-old, 12,189 were prescribed psychotropic medication, resulting in an annual prevalence of 37.9% of these children being prescribed medication. 41.3% received 3 different classes of these drugs during July 2004, and 15.9% received 4 different classes. The most frequently used medications were antidepressants (56.8%), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs (55.9%), and antipsychotic agents (53.2%).

"Concomitant psychotropic medication treatment is frequent for youth in foster care and lacks substantive evidence as to its effectiveness and safety".[93]

— Psychotropic medication patterns among youth in foster care., Pediatrics 2008

Psychiatrists prescribed 93% of the psychotropic medication, and it was noted in the review of these cases that the use of expensive, brand name, patent protected medication was prevalent. In the case of SSRIs the use of the most expensive medications was noted to be 74%, in the general market only 28% are for brand name SSRI's vs generics. The average out-of-pocket expense per prescription was $34.75 for generics and $90.17 for branded products, a $55.42, difference.[94]

Abuse and negligence

Only known photograph of five-year-old Georgia resident Terrell Peterson while alive, taken shortly before his murder at the hands of his foster parent. The case was covered up by the Georgia Department of Children and Family Services.

Children in foster care experience high rates of child abuse, emotional deprivation, and physical neglect. In one study in the United Kingdom "foster children were 7–8 times, and children in residential care 6 times more likely to be assessed by a pediatrician for abuse than a child in the general population".[95] One study by Johns Hopkins University found that the rate of sexual abuse within the foster-care system is more than four times as high as in the general population; in group homes, the rate of sexual abuse is more than 28 times that of the general population.[96][97] An Indiana study found three times more physical abuse and twice the rate of sexual abuse in foster homes than in the general population.[97] A study of foster children in Oregon and Washington State found that nearly one third reported being abused by a foster parent or another adult in a foster home.[98] These statistics do not speak to the situation these children are coming from, but it does show the very large problem of child-on-child sexual abuse within the system. There have been several notable lawsits concerning sexual abuse and negligence that caused review of the foster care system in some states:

In 2010, an ex-foster child was awarded $30 million by jury trial in California (Santa Clara County) for sexual abuse damages that happened to him in his foster home from 1995 to 1999.[99][100] The foster parent, John Jackson, was licensed by the state, despite the fact that he abused his own wife and son, overdosed on drugs and was arrested for drunken driving. In 2006, Jackson was convicted in Santa Clara County of nine counts of lewd or lascivious acts on a child by force, violence, duress, menace and fear, and seven counts of lewd or lascivious acts on a child under 14, according to the Santa Clara County District Attorney's Office.[99] The sex acts that he forced the children in his foster care to perform sent him to prison for 220 years. Later in 2010, Giarretto Institute, the private foster family agency responsible for licensing and monitoring Jackson's foster home and others, was also found to be negligent and liable for 75 percent of the abuse that was inflicted on the victim, and Jackson himself was liable for the rest.[99]

In 2009, Oregon Department of Human Services agreed to pay $2 million into a fund for the future care of twins who were allegedly abused by their foster parents; this was the largest such settlement in the agency's history.[101] According to the civil rights suit filed on request of the twins' adoptive mother in December 2007 in U.S. Federal Court, the children were kept in makeshift cages—cribs covered with chicken wire secured by duct tape—in a darkened bedroom known as "the dungeon." The brother and sister often went without food, water or human touch. The boy, who had a shunt put into his head at birth to drain fluid, did not receive medical attention, so when police rescued the twins he was nearly comatose. The same foster family previously took into their care hundreds of other children over nearly four decades.[102] DHS said the foster parents deceived child welfare workers during the checkup visits.[101]

Several lawsuits were brought in 2008 against the Florida Department of Children & Families (DCF), accusing it of mishandling reports that Thomas Ferrara, 79, a foster parent, was molesting young girls.[103][104] The suits claimed that even though there were records of sexual misconduct allegations against Ferrara in 1992, 1996, and 1999, the DCF continued to place foster children with Ferrara and his then-wife until 2000.[103] Ferrara was arrested in 2001, after a 9-year-old girl told detectives he regularly molested her over two years and threatened to hurt her mother if she told anyone. Records show that Ferrara had as many as 400 children go through his home during his 16 years as a licensed foster parent (from 1984 to 2000).[103] Officials stated that the lawsuits over Ferrara ended up costing the DCF almost $2.26 million.[104] Similary, in 2007 Florida's DCF paid $1.2 million to settle a lawsuit that alleged DCF ignored complaints that another mentally disabled Immokalee girl was being raped by her foster father, Bonifacio Velazquez, until the 15-year-old gave birth to a child.[105][106][107]

In a class action lawsuit Charlie and Nadine H. v. McGreevey[108] was filed in federal court by "Children’s Rights" New York organization on behalf of children in the custody of the New Jersey Division of Youth and Family Services (DYFS).[109][110] The complaint alleged violations of the childrens' constitutional rights and their rights under Title IV-E of the Social Security Act, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, Early Periodic Screening Diagnosis and Treatment, 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the Multiethnic Placement Act (MEPA).[111] In July 2002, the federal court granted plaintiffs’ experts access to 500 children’s case files, allowing plaintiffs to collect information concerning harm to children in foster care through a case record review.[109] These files revealed numerous cases in which foster children were abused, and DYFS failed to take proper action. On June 9, 2004, the child welfare panel appointed by the parties approved the NJ State’s Reform Plan. The court accepted the plan on June 17, 2004.[110] The same organization also filed similar lawsuits against several other states in recent years that caused some of the states to start child welfare reforms.[112]

In the United Kingdom a convicted pedophile was allowed to become a foster parent despite having served three years in prison for sexually abusing a Boy Scout. The convicted pedophile – David Mason – was allowed to have a foster child placed with him because the Kent County Council did not have his identity checked. Mason is currently incarcerated for numerous charges including rape.[113]

In Nottinghamshire County in the UK an ex-foster father was convicted in 2010 of raping and sexually abusing vulnerable boys for more than a decade.[114]

Strip Searches

Sometimes children who have been taken from their homes due to abuse or neglect are temporarily placed into shelters if a foster home is not immediately available. Some of these shelters are wings of juvenile detention facilities. Sometimes the foster children placed into these shelter wings are subjected to strip searches similar to those performed on juvenile offenders.[115]

Therapeutic intervention

The negative physical, psychological, cognitive and epigenetic effects of foster care have been established in innumerable studies in various countries. The Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study was a fairly extensive study into various aspects of the psychosocial effects of foster care noted that 80% of ex-foster children are doing "poorly".

Neuroplasticity

The human brain however has been shown to have a fair degree of neuroplasticity.[116][117][118] Adult neurogenesis has been shown to be an ongoing process.[119]

"... all those experiences are of much significance which show how the judgment of the senses may be modified by experience and by training derived under various circumstances, and may be adapted to the new conditions..." – Hermann von Helmholtz, 1866

While having a background in foster homes—especially in instances of sexual abuse—can be the precipitating factor in a wide variety of psychological and cognitive deficits such as ADHD,[120] and PTSD,[58][121] it may also serve to obfuscate the true cause of underlying issues. The foster care experience may have nothing to do with the symptoms, or on the other hand, the symptoms may be exacerbated by having a history of foster care and the attendant abuses.

Children in the child welfare system have often experienced significant and repeated traumas. Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy is one of the approaches that has been used to treat the resulting trauma and attachment difficulties caused by chronic early maltreatment within a care-giving relationship.[122][123][124]

Foster Parent and Child Reunions

Foster parents play an important pivotal role in the lives of infants placed in their care during critical developmental periods. When orphaned, fostered, or adopted children suffering from genealogical bewilderment are curious to learn about their family background and medial history, searches to locate former foster parents have potential to be just as captivating, technically challenging, and convoluted as searching for biological parents. A successful reunion with a loving set of benevolent caregiving foster parents also has potential to create positive emotional responses, stimulate happiness through an increased sense of connectedness and sense of indebtedness for children who were fostered.[125]

Foster care in popular culture

Raja Ravi Varma's Painting of Sri Krishna, as a young child with foster mother Yesoda

See also

References

  1. ^ Dorsey et Al. Current status and evidence base of training for foster and treatment foster parents
  2. ^ a b "Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care ''Demographics of Children in Foster Care''". Pewfostercare.org. http://pewfostercare.org/research/docs/Demographics0903.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  3. ^ "Fewer U.S. kids in foster care". Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. 1 September 2010. pp. 1A. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gq1yhAPK8txoVpGAPujSMUK9wz5gD9HULPCG4. [dead link]
  4. ^ "About Foster Children". Adoptuskids.org. http://www.adoptuskids.org/resourceCenter/about-children-in-foster-care.aspx. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  5. ^ "Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care". Pewfostercare.org. http://pewfostercare.org/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  6. ^ "Children's Bureau Website – Child Welfare Monitoring". Acf.hhs.gov. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/cwmonitoring/index.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  7. ^ Richard Barth, Institutions vs. Foster Homes, the Empirical Base for a Century of Action (University of North Carolina, Jordan Institute for Families, February 17, 2002; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on children's mental health: A national action agenda. Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 2000.USGPO
  8. ^ "Common Myths About Adoption". AdoptUSKids. http://www.adoptuskids.org/resourceCenter/specialNeeds.aspx. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  9. ^ JSTOR, Judith K. McKenzie. Adoption of Children with Special Needs, Brookings Institution: The Future of Children, Vol. 3, No. 1, Adoption (Spring, 1993), pp. 62–76
  10. ^ Child Abuse is Child Protection is Mental Health Treatment is Drugging Children[dead link]
  11. ^ 1992–93 Santa Clara County Grand Jury, Final Report, Investigation: Department Of Family And Children's Services, 1993.
  12. ^ Children's Bureau Express Online Digest:[dead link]
  13. ^ U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Child Maltreatment, 2004, Figure 3-2, HHS.gov
  14. ^ As of March, 1998, four months after ASFA became law, there were 520,000 children in foster care, (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, AFCARS Report #1. HHS.gov[dead link] It took until September 30, 2005, for the number to fall to 513,000 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Trends in Foster Care and Adoption, HHS.gov[dead link]
  15. ^ "Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act". Childrensdefense.org. 2008-10-07. http://www.childrensdefense.org/helping-americas-children/child-welfare/fostering-connection-success-increasing-adoptions-act-overview.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  16. ^ [1][dead link]
  17. ^ "ROGERS v. COUNTY OF SAN JOAQUIN, No. 05-16071". Caselaw.findlaw.com. http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1083074.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  18. ^ "Title 42 United States Code Section 1983". Law.cornell.edu. 2010-10-15. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/42/usc_sec_42_00001983----000-.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  19. ^ "Civil Rights Complaint Guide". http://www.utd.uscourts.gov/forms/civilrt_guide.pdf. 
  20. ^ a b "Santosky v. Kramer, 455 US 745 – Supreme Court 1982". http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16163171324148079216. 
  21. ^ a b "In re TJ, 666 A. 2d 1 – DC: Court of Appeals 1995". http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=3149611456727370759&hl. 
  22. ^ a b "Order Granting Fees Incurred on Appeal". http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=6cdf672e-9fc7-4ab4-a5a8-8d1372e3c918. 
  23. ^ "U.S. Supreme Court Denies Orange County's (California) Request". http://www.prweb.com/releases/2011FogartyHardwick/04CertDenied/prweb5261414.htm. 
  24. ^ a b c d e f "Child protection Australia 2005–06 (full publication; 19/12/2007 edition) (AIHW)" (PDF). http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/cws/cpa05-06/cpa05-06.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  25. ^ "The Lost Children". Cbsnews.com. 2009-02-11. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1999/03/24/60II/main40269.shtml. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  26. ^ "Lost childhood of Laurie Humphreys, British migrant sent to Australia". Timesonline.co.uk. 2011-02-15. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article6918770.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  27. ^ "British Child Migration to Australia: History, Senate Inquiry and Responsibilities". Murdoch.edu.au. http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v9n4/buti94.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  28. ^ "Australia 'sorry' for child abuse". BBC News. 2009-11-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8361389.stm. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  29. ^ "Gordon Brown apologises to British children who were abused after being sent abroad to start better life". Dailyrecord.co.uk. http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/2010/02/24/gordon-brown-apologises-for-programme-which-saw-thousands-of-british-children-to-colonies-to-be-abused-86908-22066649/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  30. ^ "Research Report 7 (1997) – The Aboriginal Child Placement Principle". Lawlink NSW. 2001-06-05. http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/RR7TOC. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  31. ^ McCann, JB; James, A; Wilson, S; Dunn, G (1996). "Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in young people in the care system". BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 313 (7071): 1529–30. PMC 2353045. PMID 8978231. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2353045. 
  32. ^ Pears, K; Fisher, PA (2005). "Developmental, cognitive, and neuropsychological functioning in preschool-aged foster children: associations with prior maltreatment and placement history". Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : JDBP 26 (2): 112–22. PMID 15827462. 
  33. ^ a b Tarren-Sweeney, M; Hazell, P (2006). "Mental health of children in foster and kinship care in New South Wales, Australia". Journal of paediatrics and child health 42 (3): 89–97. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2006.00804.x. PMID 16509906. 
  34. ^ Pecora, PJ; Jensen, PS; Romanelli, LH; Jackson, LJ; Ortiz, A (2009). "Mental health services for children placed in foster care: an overview of current challenges". Child welfare 88 (1): 5–26. PMC 3061347. PMID 19653451. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3061347. 
  35. ^ Karnik, Niranjan S. (2000). Journal of Medical Humanities 21 (4): 199. doi:10.1023/A:1009073008365. 
  36. ^ "Child Protection and Child Outcomes: Measuring the Effects of Foster Care" (PDF). http://www.mit.edu/~jjdoyle/doyle_fosterlt_march07_aer.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  37. ^ Koch, Wendy (2007-07-03). "Study: Troubled homes better than foster care". Usatoday.Com. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-07-02-foster-study_N.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  38. ^ Lawrence, CR; Carlson, EA; Egeland, B (2006). "The impact of foster care on development". Development and psychopathology 18 (1): 57–76. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060044. PMID 16478552. 
  39. ^ http://www.academic.marist.edu/mwwatch/fall05/science1.htm
  40. ^ Harden, BJ (2004). "Safety and stability for foster children: a developmental perspective". The Future of children / Center for the Future of Children, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation 14 (1): 30–47. PMID 15072017. 
  41. ^ "American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Early Childhood and Adoption and Dependent Care. Developmental issues for young children in foster care". Pediatrics 106 (5): 1145–50. 2000. PMID 11061791. 
  42. ^ Silverman, AB; Reinherz, HZ; Giaconia, RM (1996). "The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: a longitudinal community study". Child abuse & neglect 20 (8): 709–23. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2. PMID 8866117. 
  43. ^ Bourgeois, JP (2005). "Brain synaptogenesis and epigenesis". Médecine/Sciences 21 (4): 428–33. doi:10.1051/medsci/2005214428. PMID 15811309. 
  44. ^ Childhood Experience and the Expression of Genetic Potential: What childhood neglect tells about nature versus nurture. Perry, BD. (2002) Article[dead link]
  45. ^ Weaver, IC; Cervoni, N; Champagne, FA; D'alessio, AC; Sharma, S; Seckl, JR; Dymov, S; Szyf, M et al (2004). "Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior". Nature neuroscience 7 (8): 847–54. doi:10.1038/nn1276. PMID 15220929. 
  46. ^ McGowan, PO; Sasaki, A; D'alessio, AC; Dymov, S; Labonté, B; Szyf, M; Turecki, G; Meaney, MJ (2009). "Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse". Nature neuroscience 12 (3): 342–8. doi:10.1038/nn.2270. PMC 2944040. PMID 19234457. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2944040. 
  47. ^ Meaney, MJ; Szyf, M (2005). "Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome". Dialogues in clinical neuroscience 7 (2): 103–23. PMC 3181727. PMID 16262207. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3181727. 
  48. ^ Skinner, MK; Anway, MD; Savenkova, MI; Gore, AC; Crews, D; Baune, Bernhard (2008). Baune, Bernhard. ed. "Transgenerational epigenetic programming of the brain transcriptome and anxiety behavior". PloS one 3 (11): e3745. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003745. PMC 2581440. PMID 19015723. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2581440. 
  49. ^ Whitelaw, NC; Whitelaw, E (2006). "How lifetimes shape epigenotype within and across generations". Human molecular genetics 15 Spec No 2: R131–7. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddl200. PMID 16987876. 
  50. ^ Skinner, MK; Manikkam, M; Guerrero-Bosagna, C (2010). "Epigenetic transgenerational actions of environmental factors in disease etiology". Trends in endocrinology and metabolism: TEM 21 (4): 214–22. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2009.12.007. PMC 2848884. PMID 20074974. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2848884. 
  51. ^ Bohnen, N; Nicolson, N; Sulon, J; Jolles, J (1991). "Coping style, trait anxiety and cortisol reactivity during mental stress". Journal of psychosomatic research 35 (2–3): 141–7. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(91)90068-Y. PMID 2046048. 
  52. ^ Yehuda, R; Bierer, LM (2008). "Transgenerational transmission of cortisol and PTSD risk". Progress in brain research 167: 121–35. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67009-5. PMID 18037011. 
  53. ^ Neigh, GN; Gillespie, CF; Nemeroff, CB (2009). "The neurobiological toll of child abuse and neglect". Trauma, violence & abuse 10 (4): 389–410. doi:10.1177/1524838009339758. PMID 19661133. 
  54. ^ Weaver, IC; Champagne, FA; Brown, SE; Dymov, S; Sharma, S; Meaney, MJ; Szyf, M (2005). "Reversal of maternal programming of stress responses in adult offspring through methyl supplementation: altering epigenetic marking later in life". Journal of Neuroscience 25 (47): 11045–54. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3652-05.2005. PMID 16306417. 
  55. ^ Kalin, JH; Butler, KV; Kozikowski, AP (2009). "Creating zinc monkey wrenches in the treatment of epigenetic disorders". Current opinion in chemical biology 13 (3): 263–71. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.05.007. PMID 19541531. 
  56. ^ Weaver, IC; Meaney, MJ; Szyf, M (2006). "Maternal care effects on the hippocampal transcriptome and anxiety-mediated behaviors in the offspring that are reversible in adulthood". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (9): 3480–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507526103. PMC 1413873. PMID 16484373. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1413873. 
  57. ^ "NIMH · Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Research Fact Sheet". National Institutes of Health. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-research-fact-sheet/index.shtml. 
  58. ^ a b Dubner, AE; Motta, RW (1999). "Sexually and physically abused foster care children and posttraumatic stress disorder". Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 67 (3): 367–73. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.3.367. PMID 10369057. 
  59. ^ Casey Family Programs, Harvard Medical School (2005.04.05). "Former Foster Children in Oregon and Washington Suffer Posttraumatic Stress Disorder at Twice the Rate of U.S War Veterans"Jimcaseyyouth.org[dead link]. Retrieved 2010.03.23.
  60. ^ Cook, Rebecca (2005-04-07). "One in four foster children suffers from post-traumatic stress, study finds". Seattletimes.nwsource.com. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/health/2002232816_webptsd06.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  61. ^ Hadfield, SC; Preece, PM (2008). "Obesity in looked after children: is foster care protective from the dangers of obesity?". Child: care, health and development 34 (6): 710–2. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00874.x. PMID 18959567. 
  62. ^ Gilmour, J; Skuse, D; Pembrey, M (2001). "Hyperphagic short stature and Prader—Willi syndrome: a comparison of behavioural phenotypes, genotypes and indices of stress". The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science 179 (2): 129–37. doi:10.1192/bjp.179.2.129. PMID 11483474. 
  63. ^ Skuse, D; Albanese, A; Stanhope, R; Gilmour, J; Voss, L (1996). "A new stress-related syndrome of growth failure and hyperphagia in children, associated with reversibility of growth-hormone insufficiency". Lancet 348 (9024): 353–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)01358-X. PMID 8709732. 
  64. ^ Demb, JM (1991). "Reported hyperphagia in foster children". Child abuse & neglect 15 (1–2): 77–88. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(91)90092-R. PMID 2029675. 
  65. ^ "Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study". Research.casey.org. http://research.casey.org. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  66. ^ Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants’ attachments to their caregivers. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 135–157). NY: Cambridge University Press.
  67. ^ Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 3–50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  68. ^ Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996). Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning. Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549–559
  69. ^ Malinosky-Rummell, R.; Hansen, D.J. (1993). "Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse". Psychological Bulletin 114 (1): 68–69. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.68. PMID 8346329. 
  70. ^ a b Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520–554). Publisher: The Guilford Press; 1 edition (August 13, 1999) Language: English ISBN 1-57230-480-4 ISBN 978-1-57230-480-2
  71. ^ Greenberg, M. (1999). Attachment and Psychopathology in Childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.). Handbook of Attachment (pp.469–496). NY: Guilford Press
  72. ^ Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. Publisher: The Guilford Press; 1 edition (August 13, 1999) Language: English ISBN 1-57230-480-4 ISBN 978-1-57230-480-2
  73. ^ Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  74. ^ Carlson, E. A. (1988). "A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment". Child Development 69 (4): 1107–1128. PMID 9768489. 
  75. ^ Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). "Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.1.64. PMID 8907085. 
  76. ^ Lyons-Ruth, K.; Alpern, L.; Repacholi, B. (1993). "Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom". Child Development 64 (2): 572–585. doi:10.2307/1131270. JSTOR 1131270. PMID 8477635. 
  77. ^ "Throwaway kids". Pasadena Weekly. 2006-06-22. http://www.pasadenaweekly.com/article.php?id=3559&IssueNum=25. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  78. ^ "Saving foster kids from the streets / As the nation faces a new wave of homeless children, Larkin youth center helps provide a transition to adulthood". Sfgate.com. 2004-04-11. http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/04/11/MNGPH63KM31.DTL. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  79. ^ Current Controversies: Issues in Adoption. Ed. William Dudley. Publisher: Greenhaven Press; 1 edition (December 19, 2003) Language: English ISBN 0-7377-1626-6 ISBN 978-0-7377-1626-9
  80. ^ Lopez, P; Allen, PJ (2007). "Addressing the health needs of adolescents transitioning out of foster care". Pediatric nursing 33 (4): 345–55. PMID 17907736. 
  81. ^ V.Roman, N.P. & Wolfe, N. (1995). Web of failure: The relationship between foster care and homelessness. Washington, DC: National Alliance to End Homelessness.
  82. ^ "80 Percent Failure A Brief Analysis of the Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study". Nccpr.info. 2005-04-07. http://nccpr.info/80-percent-failure/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  83. ^ Web of Failure: The Relationship Between Foster Care and Homelessness, Nan P. Roman, Phyllis Wolfe, National Alliance to End Homelessness
  84. ^ Charles, G; Matheson, J (1991). "Suicide prevention and intervention with young people in foster care in Canada". Child welfare 70 (2): 185–91. PMID 2036873. 
  85. ^ "Improving Outcomes for Older Youth" (PDF). http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/pdf/WhitePaper_ImprovingOutcomesOlderYouth_FR.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  86. ^ Vinnerljung, B; Hjern, A; Lindblad, F (2006). "Suicide attempts and severe psychiatric morbidity among former child welfare clients—a national cohort study". Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines 47 (7): 723–33. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01530.x. PMID 16790007. 
  87. ^ Barth, R (1998). "Death rates among California's foster care and former foster care populations". Children and Youth Services Review 20 (7): 577–604. doi:10.1016/S0190-7409(98)00027-9. 
  88. ^ Kalland, M; Pensola, TH; Meriläinen, J; Sinkkonen, J (2001). "Mortality in children registered in the Finnish child welfare registry: population based study". BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 323 (7306): 207–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7306.207. PMC 35273. PMID 11473912. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=35273. 
  89. ^ a b "The Corrupt Business of Child Protective Services – report by Senator Nancy Schaefer, September 25, 2008". http://www.nccr.info/attachments/600_The%20Corrupt%20Business%20Of%20Child%20Protective%20Services.pdf. 
  90. ^ a b "Findings from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study". http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/pdf/ImprovingFamilyFosterCare_FR.pdf. 
  91. ^ *Unfulfilled Promise: The Dimensions and Characteristics of Philadelphia's Dropout Crisis, 2000–05,"JHU.edu
  92. ^ "Incarnation Controversy Simmers: City’s Agency Handling of HIV Kids Still Questioned by Foster Parents". The Indypendent. 2005-12-08. http://www.indypendent.org/?p=532. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  93. ^ a b Zito, JM; Safer, DJ; Sai, D; Gardner, JF; Thomas, D; Coombes, P; Dubowski, M; Mendez-Lewis, M (2008). "Psychotropic medication patterns among youth in foster care". Pediatrics 121 (1): e157–63. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-0212. PMID 18166534. 
  94. ^ Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2008 April; 5(4): 25–26. Full text at PMC: 2719553 Elisa F. Cascade and Amir H. Kalali, MD Generic Penetration of the SSRI Market
  95. ^ Hobbs, GF; Hobbs, CJ; Wynne, JM (1999). "Abuse of children in foster and residential care". Child abuse & neglect 23 (12): 1239–52. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00096-4. PMID 10626608. 
  96. ^ "Law Article – Law Related Articles". Hg.org. http://www.hg.org/article.asp?id=6703. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  97. ^ a b "Foster Care vs. Family Preservation". http://www.nccpr.org/reports/01SAFETY.pdf. 
  98. ^ Pecora, Peter J.. "Improving Family Foster Care | Casey Family Programs". Casey.org. http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/ImprovingFamilyFosterCare.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  99. ^ a b c "South Bay sex-abuse lawsuit: Ex-foster child awarded $30 million – San Jose Mercury News". Mercurynews.com. http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_15684415?nclick_check=1. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  100. ^ "Estey & Bomberger announces Jury Awards $30 Million in San Jose Molestation Case". http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20100805006437/en/Estey-Bomberger-announces-Jury-Awards-30-Million. 
  101. ^ a b Aimee Green, The Oregonian. "Gresham foster kids abused despite DHS checks". OregonLive.com. http://www.oregonlive.com/news/index.ssf/2009/04/gresham_foster_kids_abused_des.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  102. ^ Michelle Cole, The Oregonian. "Abuse in children's foster care: State officials call for outside review". OregonLive.com. http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/index.ssf/2009/09/abuse_in_foster_care_state_off.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  103. ^ a b c "Foster Care Child Molestation, Department of Children & Families pays $175,000 negligence settlement". Lawyersandsettlements.com. http://www.lawyersandsettlements.com/settlements/10747/foster-care-child-molestation.html. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  104. ^ a b "Foster parent, 79, accused of molesting girls in his care". http://cftlaw.com/news.php?category=Firm+In+the+News&headline=Lawsuits+against+Department+of+Children+%26+Families+cost+state+%242.26+million. 
  105. ^ Swift, Aisling. "Child of rape now 9, yet DCF settlement held up » Naples Daily News". Naplesnews.com. http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2009/mar/27/child-rape-now-9-yet-dcf-settlement-held/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  106. ^ "Florida Committee Substitute for Senate Bill No. 60". http://laws.flrules.org/2010/235. 
  107. ^ http://www.flsenate.gov/data/session/2010/Senate/bills/billtext/pdf/s0060.pdf
  108. ^ "Charlie and Nadine H. v. McGreevey". Youthlaw.org. http://www.youthlaw.org/publications/fc_docket/alpha/charlieandnadineh/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  109. ^ a b "New Jersey (Charlie and Nadine H. v. Christie) — Children’s Rights". Childrensrights.org. http://www.childrensrights.org/reform-campaigns/legal-cases/new-jersey-charlie-and-nadine-h-v-corzine/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  110. ^ a b "Charlie and Nadine H. v. Codey, also known as Charlie and Nadine H. v. McGreevey and Charlie and Nadine H. v. Whitman : National Center for Youth Law". youthlaw.org. http://www.youthlaw.org/publications/fc_docket/alpha/charlieandnadineh/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  111. ^ "Legal Documents(Charlie and Nadine H. v. Corzine)". http://www.childrensrights.org/reform-campaigns/legal-cases/new-jersey-charlie-and-nadine-h-v-corzine/2/. 
  112. ^ Home Reform Campaigns Results of Reform Results of Reform. "Results of Reform — Children’s Rights". Childrensrights.org. http://www.childrensrights.org/reform-campaigns/results-of-reform/. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  113. ^ The Daily Mail: "Paedophile with a long history of abuse was able to foster a child after council failures", May 6, 2011. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
  114. ^ BBC: "Foster carer Patrick Gallagher jailed for child sex abuse", May 24, 2011. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
  115. ^ http://fostercareinjustice.wordpress.com/2011/11/06/who-gives-the-more-sensual-search-the-tsa-or-macomb-county-youth-home/
  116. ^ Johansen-Berg, H (2007). "Structural plasticity: rewiring the brain". Current biology : CB 17 (4): R141–4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.022. PMID 17307051. 
  117. ^ Duffau, H (2006). "Brain plasticity: from pathophysiological mechanisms to therapeutic applications". Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 13 (9): 885–97. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2005.11.045. PMID 17049865. 
  118. ^ Holtmaat, A; Svoboda, K (2009). "Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain". Nature reviews. Neuroscience 10 (9): 647–58. doi:10.1038/nrn2699. PMID 19693029. 
  119. ^ Ge, S; Sailor, KA; Ming, GL; Song, H (2008). "Synaptic integration and plasticity of new neurons in the adult hippocampus". The Journal of physiology 586 (16): 3759–65. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2008.155655. PMC 2538931. PMID 18499723. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2538931. 
  120. ^ Chen CY, Gerhard T, Winterstein AG. Determinants of initial pharmacological treatment for youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009 Apr;19(2):187-95. PMID 19364296
  121. ^ Weinstein, D; Staffelbach, D; Biaggio, M (2000). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: differential diagnosis in childhood sexual abuse". Clinical psychology review 20 (3): 359–78. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00107-X. PMID 10779899. 
  122. ^ Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., (Eds.) Creating Capacity for Attachment, Oklahoma City, OK: Wood N Barnes, 2005/2009/2011
  123. ^ Becker-Weidman, A., Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy: Essential Methods & Practices, Jason Aronson, Lanham, MD, 2010
  124. ^ Hughes, D., Attachment Focused Family Therapy, Norton: NY, 2009
  125. ^ Adoption Detective: Memoir of an Adopted Child, Judith and Martin Land, (2011), Chapter 5—Foster Parents, p. 20-26, Epilogue, p. 259-260, and References p. 275
  126. ^ Bones Season 4 TOP 10 Most Shocking Moments[dead link]
  127. ^ Secret Life Of The American Teenager Margaret[dead link]
  128. ^ "The Leverage Team – Parker's Biography". Tnt.tv. http://www.tnt.tv/series/leverage/characters/?contentId=41358. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  129. ^ "The Leverage Team – Alec Hardison's Biography". Tnt.tv. http://www.tnt.tv/series/leverage/characters/?contentId=41356. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 
  130. ^ "Foster to Famous". Fosterclub.com. http://www.fosterclub.com/famous. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 

Further reading

  • Hurley, Kendra (2002). "Almost Home" Retrieved June 27, 2006.
  • Carlson, E.A. (1998). "A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment". Child Development 69 (4): 1107–1128. PMID 9768489. 
  • Knowlton, Paul E. (2001). "The Original Foster Care Survival Guide"; A first person account directed to successfully aging out of foster care.
  • McCutcheon, James, 2010. "Historical Analysis and Contemporary Assessment of Foster Care in Texas: Perceptions of Social Workers in a Private, Non-Profit Foster Care Agency". Applied Research Projects. Texas State University Paper 332.

External links

Adoption and foster care
By country
Issues
Laws
History
Types
Theories/Areas
Styles
Techniques
Discipline
Abuse
Legal / social
aspects
Experts
Rights
Education
Planning
Health
Pregnancy
Medicine
Disorder
By country
Related navboxes

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

 
 

 

Copyrights:

$copyright.smallImage.alttext Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health. © 2006 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
$copyright.smallImage.alttext Gale Encyclopedia of US History. Encyclopedia of American History Copyright © 2006 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/.  Read more
Wikipedia on Answers.com. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article Foster care.  Read more

Related answers
» More
Answer these
» More
Follow us
Facebook Twitter
YouTube

Mentioned in

» More» More