James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist from Edinburgh,
Scotland. His most significant achievement was aggregating a set of equations in electricity,
magnetism and inductance — eponymously named Maxwell's
equations — including an important modification of Ampère's Circuital Law. It was the most unified model of
electromagnetism yet. It is famous for introducing to the physics community a detailed model of light as an electromagnetic
phenomena, building upon the earlier hypothesis advanced by Faraday (Faraday Effect).
He also developed the Maxwell distribution, a statistical means to
describe aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. These two discoveries helped usher in
the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for future work in such fields as special
relativity and quantum mechanics. He is also known for creating the first true
colour photograph in 1861.
| “ |
[The work of Maxwell] ... the most profound and the most fruitful that
physics has experienced since the time of Newton. |
” |
|
—Albert Einstein, The Sunday Post[1]
|
Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic
fields travel through space, in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of light.
Finally, in 1861 Maxwell wrote a four-part publication in the Philosophical Magazine called On Physical Lines of Force
where he first proposed that light was in fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of
electric and magnetic phenomena.
Maxwell is considered by many physicists to be the scientist of the nineteenth century most influential on twentieth century
physics. His contributions to physics are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.[2]
Biography
Early life and education
James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 in
Edinburgh, Scotland, to John Clerk and Frances Maxwell (née
Cay). His birthplace, at 14 India Street, is now the location of the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences. It was at this time that
physicist Michael Faraday was in the process of completing his work on electromagnetic induction, a concept upon which Maxwell would later build.
Maxwell grew up on his father's estate in the Scottish countryside. He was encouraged by his father to pursue his scientific
and mathematical interests. Maxwell entered college at the age of 16 and eventually graduated with high honours in mathematics.
All indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age. By the age of three, everything
that moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question: "what's the go o' that?".[3] In a letter to her sister Jane Cay in 1834, his mother describes this innate sense of
inquisitiveness:
He is a very happy man, and has improved much since the weather got moderate; he has great work with doors, locks, keys, etc.,
and 'show me how it doos' is never out of his mouth. He also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell-wires, the way
the water gets from the pond through the wall...[2]
Recognizing the potential of young Maxwell, his mother Frances took responsibility for his early education, which in Victorian
times was largely the job of the women of the house. She became ill — probably with cancer — and died in 1839. His father, John
Clerk Maxwell, undertook the education of his son, with the aid of his sister-in-law Jane Cay, both of whom played pivotal roles
in the life of James. His formal education began, unsuccessfully, under the guidance of a hired tutor. Not much is known about
the man James's father hired to instruct his son, except that he treated the younger Maxwell harshly. His educational philosophy
was founded upon coercion, often physical. James never responded well to the tutor's instruction; he chided his student for being
slow and wayward. After considerable searching, John Maxwell sent James to the Edinburgh
Academy. His school nickname was "Daftie", earned when he arrived for his first day of school wearing home-made shoes.
Maxwell was captivated by geometry at an early age, rediscovering the regular polyhedra before any formal instruction. Much of his talent went unnoticed however, and his
academic work remained unremarkable until, in 1845 at the age of 13, he won the school's mathematical medal, and first prizes for
English and for English verse. For his first piece of original work, at the age of 14, Maxwell wrote a paper describing
mechanical means of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of twine and properties of ellipses and curves with more than two foci. This work, Oval Curves, was published in an issue of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, and although it shows the curiosity of Maxwell at a young age, it is important to note that the work itself was
not mathematically profound. Unlike other great minds, such as Gauss,
Pascal or Mozart, Maxwell was not a
child prodigy. Rather, his genius would mature slowly.
Middle years
A young Maxwell at university. He is holding the
colour wheel which he invented.
Maxwell left the Academy and began attending class at the University of Edinburgh. Having the opportunity to attend Cambridge after his first term,
Maxwell decided instead to complete the full three terms of his undergraduate studies at Edinburgh. The main reason for this was
that Cambridge was too far from home, and he would only have the opportunity to see his father twice a year. Another reason was
Maxwell's concern for his future. He wanted to become a scientist, but jobs in science were rare at this time, and it would have
been much more difficult to obtain a lecturing post at a university as prestigious as Cambridge. Accordingly, Maxwell completed
his studies at Edinburgh in natural
philosophy, moral philosophy, and mental philosophy under Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet. In his eighteenth year he contributed two papers
for the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh — one of which,
On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids, laid the foundation for an important discovery of his later life: the temporary
double refraction produced in viscous liquids by shear stress.
In 1850, Maxwell left for Cambridge University and initially attended
Peterhouse, but eventually left for Trinity College where he believed it was easier to obtain a fellowship. At Trinity, he was elected to the secret society known as the Cambridge Apostles. In November 1851, Maxwell studied under the tutor William Hopkins (nicknamed the "wrangler
maker"). A considerable part of the translation of his electromagnetism equations was accomplished during Maxwell's career as an
undergraduate in Trinity.
In 1854, Maxwell graduated with a degree as second wrangler in mathematics from Trinity
(i.e. scoring second-highest in the final mathematics examination) and was declared equal with the senior wrangler of his year in
the more exacting ordeal of the Smith's prize examination. Immediately after taking his degree, he read to the Cambridge
Philosophical Society a novel memoir, On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending. This is one of the few purely
mathematical papers he published, and it exhibited at once to experts the full genius of its author. About the same time, his
elaborate memoir, On Faraday's Lines of Force appeared, in which he gave the
first indication of some of the electrical investigations which culminated in the greatest work of his life.
The first permanent colour photograph, taken by James Clerk Maxwell in 1861.
From 1855 to 1872, he published at intervals a series of valuable investigations connected with the Perception of
Colour and Colour-Blindness, for the earlier of which he received the Rumford
medal from the Royal Society in 1860. The instruments which he devised for these investigations were simple and convenient
in use. For example, Maxwell's discs were used to compare a variable mixture of three
primary colours with a sample colour by observing the spinning "colour top." In 1856, Maxwell was appointed to the chair of
Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen, which he held until the fusion of Aberdeen's two colleges in 1860.
In 1859, he won the Adams prize in Cambridge for an original essay, On the Stability
of Saturn's Rings, in which he concluded the rings could not be completely solid or fluid. Maxwell demonstrated stability
could ensue only if the rings consisted of numerous small solid particles, which he called "brickbats". He also mathematically
disproved the nebular hypothesis (which stated that the solar system formed through the progressive condensation of a purely
gaseous nebula), forcing the theory to account for additional portions of small solid
particles.
In 1860 he became a professor at King's College London. In 1861, Maxwell was
elected to the Royal Society. He researched elastic solids and pure geometry during this time.
Kinetic theory
-
One of Maxwell's greatest investigations was on the kinetic theory of gases. Originating with Daniel Bernoulli, this theory was advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath, John James Waterston, James Joule, and particularly Rudolf Clausius, to such an
extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt; but it received enormous development from Maxwell, who in this field
appeared as an experimenter (on the laws of gaseous friction) as well as a mathematician.
In 1865, Maxwell moved to the estate he inherited from his father in Glenlair,
Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. In 1868, he resigned his Chair of Physics and Astronomy
at King's College, London.
In 1866, he formulated statistically, independently of Ludwig Boltzmann, the
Maxwell-Boltzmann kinetic theory of gases. His formula, called the Maxwell
distribution, gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature. In the
kinetic theory, temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement. This approach generalized
the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had
been achieved previously. Maxwell's work on thermodynamics led him to devise the
thought experiment that came to be known as Maxwell's demon.
Electromagnetism
-
A postcard from Maxwell to
Peter Tait.
The greatest work of Maxwell's life was devoted to electricity. Maxwell's most important contribution was the extension and
mathematical formulation of earlier work on electricity and magnetism by Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, and others into a linked set of differential equations (originally, 20 equations in 20 variables, later re-expressed in
quaternion- and vector-based notations). These
equations, which are now collectively known as Maxwell's equations (or occasionally,
"Maxwell's Wonderful Equations"), were first presented to the Royal Society in 1864, and together describe the behaviour and
relation between electric and magnetic fields, as well as their interactions with
matter.
Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of
waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty
space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell
obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s. In his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Maxwell wrote,
- The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light
is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws.
Maxwell was proved correct, and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great
triumphs of 19th century physics.
At that time, Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves, dubbed the luminiferous aether. Over time, the existence of such a medium, permeating all space and yet
apparently undetectable by mechanical means, proved more and more difficult to reconcile with experiments such as the
Michelson-Morley experiment. Moreover, it seemed to require an absolute
frame of reference in which the equations were valid, with the distasteful result
that the equations changed form for a moving observer. These difficulties inspired Albert
Einstein to formulate the theory of special relativity, and in the process
Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a luminiferous aether.
Control theory
Maxwell published a famous paper "On governors" in the Proceedings of Royal Society, vol. 16 (1867-1868). This paper is quite
frequently considered a classical paper in the early days of control theory.
Later years
James and Katherine Maxwell, 1869.
Maxwell also made contributions to the area of optics and colour vision, being credited with
the discovery that colour photographs could be formed using red, green, and blue filters. He
had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a
tartan ribbon three times, each time with a different colour filter over the lens. The three
images were developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors, each equipped with the same colour filter
used to take its image. When brought into focus, the three images formed a full colour image. The three photographic plates now
reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was born.
Maxwell's work on colour blindness won him the Rumford Medal by the Royal Society of London. He wrote an admirable
textbook of the Theory of Heat (1871), and an excellent elementary treatise on Matter and Motion (1876). Maxwell
was also the first to make explicit use of dimensional analysis, also in 1871.
In 1871, he was the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at
Cambridge. Maxwell was put in charge of the development of the Cavendish Laboratory. He supervised every step of the progress of the building and of the purchase
of the very valuable collection of apparatus paid for by its generous founder, the 7th Duke of Devonshire (chancellor of the university, and one of its most
distinguished alumni). One of Maxwell's last great contributions to science was the editing (with copious original notes) of the
electrical researches of Henry Cavendish, from which it appeared that Cavendish
researched such questions as the mean density of the earth and the
composition of water, among other things.
Maxwell married Katherine Mary Dewar when he was 27 years of age, but they had no children. He died in Cambridge of abdominal
cancer at the age of 48. He had been a devout Christian his entire life. Maxwell is buried at Parton Kirk, near Castle Douglas in
Galloway, Scotland.
The extended biography The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor
Lewis Campbell, was published in 1882 and his collected works, including the series of
articles on the properties of matter, such as Atom, Attraction, Capillary Action, Diffusion,
Ether, etc., were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge University
Press in 1890.
Personality
From the start of his childhood, religion touched all aspects of Maxwell's life. Both his father and mother were devout
churchgoers (Presbyterian and Episcopalian) and instilled a strong faith in their son. All information available suggests that
neither in his adolescence, nor in his later years, did Maxwell ever reject the fundamental principles of his Christian
faith.[citation needed] Ivan Tolstoy, author of one of
Maxwell's biographies, remarked at the frequency with which scientists writing short biographies on Maxwell often omit the
subject of his religion.
As a great lover of British poetry, Maxwell memorized poems and wrote his own. The best known is Rigid Body Sings
closely based on Comin' Through the Rye by Robert
Burns, which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar. It has the immortal opening lines[1]:
- Gin a body meet a body
- Flyin' through the air.
- Gin a body hit a body,
- Will it fly? And where?
A collection of his poems was published by his friend Lewis Campbell in 1882.
Legacy
Maxwell was ranked #24 on Michael H. Hart's list of the
most influential figures in history and #91 on the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.
- The maxwell (Mx), a compound derived CGS unit measuring magnetic flux (commonly
abbreviated as f).
- Maxwell Montes, a mountain range on Venus, one of only three features on the planet that are not given female names.
- The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, the largest sub-mm
astronomical telescope in the world, with a diameter of 15 metres.
- The 1977 James Clerk Maxwell building of the University of Edinburgh,
housing the schools of mathematics, physics,
computer science and meteorology.
- The James Clerk Maxwell building at the Waterloo campus of King's College
London, in commemoration of him being Professor of Natural Philosophy at King's from 1860 to 1865. The university also has
a chair in Physics named after him, and a society for undergraduate physicists.
- Maxwell House was selected in 1968 as the name for Dorm B at the newly-opened Crown College at the University of California at Santa Cruz. It was the most-desired name of those
offered to the eight houses.
- The £4 million James Clerk Maxwell Centre of the Edinburgh Academy was
opened in 2006 to mark his 175th anniversary.
- James Clerk Maxwell Road in Cambridge, which runs along one side of the Cavendish Laboratory.
- The University of Salford's main building has also been named after him.
- James Clerk Maxwell was featured in the 1995 SNES game
Tales of Phantasia as a summon that can aid the party in battle. His ability
consisted of electromagnetic spheres that attacked the enemy.
- Also featured in the 2004 GameCube game Tales
of Symphonia as the especial and most powerful of all summons of the game, being called the king of summons. Had the
ability to shoot meteors and could only be gotten after getting every other summon spirit.
- The software company Next Limit sells a software package called Maxwell Render which renders 3d geometry using
the full unbiased spectral properties of natural light.
Publications
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Description of Oval Curves, and
those having a plurality of Foci". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Vol. ii. 1846.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases". 1860.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Physical Lines of Force". 1861.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field". 1865.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Governors".From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. 16 (1867-1868) pp.
270-283.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Theory of Heat". 1871.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Focal Lines of a Refracted Pencil". Proceedings of the
London Mathematical Society s1-4(1):337-343, 1871.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism". Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1873.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Molecules". Nature, September, 1873.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Hamilton's Characteristic Function for a Narrow Beam of
Light". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society s1-6(1):182-190, 1874.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Matter and Motion", 1876.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as Applied to their Internal Friction, their
Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat".
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Ether", Encyclopedia Britannica, Ninth Edition
(1875-89).
See also
References
- ^ McFall, Patrick "Brainy young James wasn't so daft
after all" in The Sunday Post, April 23 2006
- ^ a b Tolstoy, Ivan (1981). James
Clerk Maxwell: A Biography. Edinburgh: Cannongate, 12. ISBN
086241010X.
- ^ Mahon, Basil (2003). The
Man Who Changed Everything – the Life of James Clerk Maxwell. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-86171-1.
External links
Biographical-related links
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James Clerk Maxwell Foundation
Maxwell's 175th Anniversary
Song lyrics and poetry
Maxwell - Christian/Creationist interpretation
Photos
Academic-related links
Mathematics
Treatise On Electricity And Magnetism - 1873 Edition
Versions of Maxwell's 1873 treatise readable online
Supplementary material for understanding Maxwell's 1873 treatise
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