theocracy

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Theocracy is a form of government in which the official policy is to be governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religious sect or religion.^[1][2][3]

From the perspective of the theocratic government, "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state, ^[4] hence the term theocracy, from the Greek θεοκρατια "rule of God", a term used by Josephus for the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.^[5]

A theocracy may have an administrative hierarchy of the government identical with the administrative hierarchy of the religion, or it may have two 'arms,' but with the state administrative hierarchy subordinate to the religious hierarchy.

Theocracy should be distinguished from other, secular, forms of government that have a state religion, or are merely influenced by theological or moral concepts, and monarchies held "By the Grace of God".

History of the concept

The word theocracy originates from the Greek θεοκρατία, meaning "the rule of God". This in turn derives from the Greek words θεός (theos), meaning "god", and κρατεῖν (kratein), meaning "to rule." Thus the meaning of the word in Greek was "rule by god(s)" or human incarnation(s) of god(s).

It was first coined by Josephus Flavius in the first century A.D. to describe the characteristic government for Jews. Josephus argued that while the Greeks recognized three types of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and anarchy, the Jews were unique in that they had a system of government that did not fit into those categories. Josephus understood theocracy as a fourth form of government in which only God and his law is sovereign. Josephus' definition was widely accepted until the Enlightenment era, when the term started to collect more universalistic^{[clarification needed]} and negative connotations, especially in Hegel's hands.

The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning "sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" (as in Biblical Israel before the rise of kings); the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" is recorded from 1825.

The word has been mostly used to label certain politically unpopular societies as less rational or developed. The concept is used in sociology and other social sciences, but the term is often used inaccurately, especially in popular rhetoric.

In the most common usage of the term theocracy, some civil rulers are leaders of the dominant religion (e.g., the Byzantine emperor as patron of the head of the official Church); the government claims to rule on behalf of God or a higher power, as specified by the local religion, and divine approval of government institutions and laws. These characteristics apply also to a caesaropapist regime. The Byzantine Empire however was not theocratic since the patriarch answered to the emperor, not vice versa; similarly in Tudor England the crown forced the church to break away from Rome so the royal (and, especially later, parliamentary) power could assume full control of the now Anglican hierarchy and confiscate most church property and income.

Taken literally or strictly, theocracy means rule by God or gods and refers primarily to an internal "rule of the heart", especially in its biblical application. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, would be more accurately described as an ecclesiocracy.^[6]

In a pure theocracy, the civil leader is believed to have a direct personal connection with God. For example, a prophet like Moses led the Israelites, and the prophet Muhammad ruled the early Muslims. Law proclaimed by the ruler is also considered a divine revelation, and hence the law of God. An ecclesiocracy, on the other hand, is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. For example, the prince-bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler. The papacy in the Papal States occupied a middle ground between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, since the pope did not claim he is a prophet who receives revelation from God, but merely the (in rare cases infallible) interpreter of already-received revelation. Religiously endorsed monarchies fall between these two poles, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs.

The example which Flavius gave for theocracy, the rule of the Temple of Jerusalem's High Priest, would under the present definition be an Ecclesiocracy, since these (often worldly) priests did not claim to have any revelation or direct connection with God.^{[citation needed]}

Secular governments can also coexist with a state religion or delegate some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, in Israel civil marriage is governed by Jewish religious institutions for Jews, by Muslim religious institutions for Muslims, and by Christian religious institutions for Christians. India similarly delegates control of marriage and some other civil matters to the religious communities, in large part as a way of accommodating its Muslim minority. Egypt was run in both a monarchic and theocratic fashion in which the pharaoh was the head priest...

Current theocracies

Islamic states

An Islamic state is a state that has adopted Islam, specifically Sharia, as its foundations for political institutions, or laws, exclusively, and has implemented the Islamic ruling system khilafah (Arabic: خلافة), and is therefore a theocracy. Although there is much debate as to which states or groups operate strictly according to Islamic Law, Sharia is the official basis for state laws in the following countries: Yemen, Afghanistan, Somalia, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Mauritania, Oman and Iran. In Nigeria, the constitution provides that states may elect to use Shari'a laws and courts, though non-Muslims are not required in any state to submit to Shari'a jurisdiction and adherence varies by state.^[7]

Saudi Arabia maintains religious courts for all aspects of law and has religious police to maintain social compliance. Also Iran maintains religious courts for all aspects of law and has religious police to maintain social compliance, while its government is described as a "theocratic republic".^[8] Iran's head of state, or Supreme Leader, is appointed for life by an elected body called Assembly of Experts.^[8] The Council of Guardians, considered part of the executive branch of government, is responsible for determining if legislation is in line with Islamic law and customs (the Sharia), and can bar candidates from elections, and greenlight or ban investigations into the election process.^[8] Pakistan has Islam as its only official religion and its Federal Shariat Court has the duty of striking down any law not complying with the Sharia code of Islamic law; however, ruling falls upon legal scholars who, while required to be Muslim, are not religious clergy.

Holy See (Vatican City)

Following the unification of Italy, Vatican City became the last surviving territory of the former Papal States.^[9] In 1929, the State of Vatican City was formally recognized as an independent state through treaties with the Italian government.^[9] The head of state of the Vatican is the pope, elected by the College of Cardinals, an assembly of Senatorial-princes of the Church, who are usually clerics, appointed as Ordinaries, but in the past have also included men who were not bishops nor clerics.^[9] A pope is elected for life, and voting is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age.^[9] A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations, is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted in canon law but ultimately is decided by the pope; the Bishop of Rome as the Supreme Pontiff, "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers."^[10] The government of the Vatican can also be considered an ecclesiocracy (ruled by the Church).

Central Tibetan Administration

The Central Tibetan Administration, colloquially known as the Tibetan government in exile, is a Tibetan exile organisation with a state-like internal structure. According to its charter, the position of head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration belongs ex officio to the current Dalai Lama, a religious hierarch. In this respect, it continues the traditions of the former government of Tibet, which was ruled by the Dalai Lamas and their ministers, with a specific role reserved for a class of monk officials.

On March 14, 2011, at the 14th Dalai Lama's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader.

Current states with theocratic aspects

Israel

Israel operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic republic with universal suffrage.^[11] However, Israel is frequently described as being a theocratic state.^[12]

Since Israel was founded by the Zionist movement as a Jewish state, and Judaism as a religion is often conflated with Judaism as a nationality,^[12] Israel can have the semblance of guiding theocratic principles in its government. Mitchell Bard writes:^[12]

By blurring the distinction between nationality and religion, Israelis find themselves frequently accused of living in a theocratic state and in many ways it would seem Israel fits the mold of a sacred state.

Indeed, Israeli writer Gideon Levy in his Haaretz op-ed opines the country is a "semi-theocracy", writing, "Between Stockholm and Tehran, Israel of 2009, with its many religious attributes, is closer to Tehran", closing with "Let's admit that we live in a country with many religious and halakhic attributes. Let's remove the concocted secularist guise with which we have wrapped ourselves."^[13] Others point out that Israeli citizens have diverse religions, even as the country only grants instant citizenship to Jews.

Such attributes, while appearing somewhat theocratic do not qualify the country as a theocracy, Emanuel Gutman argues:^[12]

The organs of government and state power neither derive their legal authority from religion or church nor their legitimation from any divine source. It cannot be claimed with any semblance of realism that state and church are coequal partners in the governance of the state. Indeed, all legal powers of the religious institutions and organs are ultimately devolved upon them by the state.

States with official state religion

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Though having a state religion is not sufficient to be a theocracy, it is a theocratic aspect. Many countries have a state religion without government directly deriving its powers from a divine authority. The following states, for example, recognize some form of Christianity as their state or official religion (by denomination):

Roman Catholic

Theocracy is “a form of government in which God or another deity is recognized as the supreme ruler, having their laws being interpreted by the ecclesiastical authorities ^[14],” or essentially the higher power makes the laws. Theocracy is an aspect of government that deals with the creation of governing rules by following the direction of God or a deity.

Those who follow the formatted government of theocracy include: Jurisdictions which recognize Roman Catholicism as their state or official religion:

• Costa Rica^[15]
• Liechtenstein^[16]
• Malta^[17]
• Monaco^[18]
• Some cantons of Switzerland (state religion):
  • Appenzell Innerrhoden (declared "religion of the people of Appenzell Innerrhoden")
  • Aargau
  • Basel-Country
  • Berne
  • Glarus
  • Graubünden
  • Nidwalden
  • Schwyz
  • Thurgau
  • Uri

Throughout history there have been different countries that have leaned towards the idea of Theocracy. Europe is one of the first regions documented that became familiarized with theocracy as they sent their citizens away to spread the idea of Christianity as an absolute form of government^[19]. Roman Catholics have tried making vested interests in the United States and their form of government. The United States is a democracy (a government ruled by the people for the people ^[20], but the Roman Catholics would like to see the United States transfer over to a Theocratic government, adopting the Catholic principles of governing such an area.

An example of such Roman Catholic interest in the United States governing system was back in 1998 when the Vatican tried to talk to the then President about abortions and euthanasia.

Pope John Paul II was quoted saying: The notion of freedom and personal autonomy is superficially attractive, endorsed by individuals, the media, legislature, and the courts.... Yet it ultimately destroys the personal good of individuals and the common good of society.... The Church is preserved in the truth and it is her duty to give utterance to and authoritatively to teach that truth. ^[21] Pope John Paul II states that freedom of democracy destroys people because the people are fed lies and makes their own assumptions instead of following the word of “the Lord.”

Potential problems of having a theocracy is that in a country not everyone believes in the same God or deity. Having such a dilemma may break out into unfit government officials, raids, and lack of governmental control ^[22]. A potential benefit of having a theocracy is that there is no one person in control of the people. Having a more open form of government would allow for citizens to make freer choices, similar to the background of having an anarchy government as there would be no real form of government; this leads to a potential problem because there would be no responsible party for creating and enforcing rules which would lead to more chaos. Chaos would be reached in such a scenario because people would want to dictate their own rules to each other, becoming their own governing official, similar in fashion to anarchy (lack of government) or an ochlocracy (mob rule government).

Jurisdictions which recognize Roman Catholicism as their state or official religion:

• Costa Rica^[23]
• Liechtenstein^[16]
• Malta^[24]
• Monaco^[18]
• Some cantons of Switzerland (state religion):
  • Appenzell Innerrhoden (declared "religion of the people of Appenzell Innerrhoden")
  • Aargau
  • Basel-Country
  • Berne
  • Glarus
  • Graubünden
  • Nidwalden
  • Schwyz
  • Thurgau
  • Uri

A number of countries, including Andorra, Argentina,^[25] Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Italy,^[26] Indonesia, Haiti, Honduras, Paraguay,^[27] Peru,^[28] Philippines, Poland,^[29] Portugal^{[citation needed]}, Slovakia, and Spain,^[30] give a special recognition to Catholicism in their constitution despite not making it the state religion.

Eastern Orthodox

Jurisdictions which recognize one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches as their state religion:

• Greece (Church of Greece)^[31]
• Finland: Finnish Orthodox Church has a special relationship with the Finnish state.^[32] The internal structure of the church is described in the Orthodox Church Act. The church has a power to tax its members and corporations if a majority of shareholders are members. The church does not consider itself a state church, as the state does not have the authority to affect its internal workings or theology.

Lutheran

Jurisdictions which recognize a Lutheran church as their state religion:

• Denmark (Church of Denmark)^[33]
• Iceland (Church of Iceland)^[34]
• Norway (Church of Norway)^[35]
• Finland: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland has a special relationship with the Finnish state, its internal structure being described in a special law, the Church Act.^[32] The Church Act can be amended only by a decision of the Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and subsequent ratification by the parliament. The Church Act is protected by the Finnish constitution, and the state can not change the Church Act without changing the constitution. The church has a power to tax its members and all corporations unless a majority of shareholders are members of the Finnish Orthodox Church. The state collects these taxes for the church, for a fee. On the other hand, the church is required to give a burial place for everyone in its graveyards.^[36] The Finnish president also decides the themes for the intercession days. The church does not consider itself a state church, as the Finnish state does not have the power to influence its internal workings or its theology, although it has a veto in those changes of the internal structure which require changing the Church Act. Neither does the Finnish state accord any precedence to Lutherans or the Lutheran faith in its own acts.

Anglican

Jurisdictions that recognise an Anglican church as their state religion:

• England (Church of England): In England the Monarch is both head of state and head of the church. The rest of the UK is however not Anglican (although Anglican minorities exist within the other three countries) and the Act of Union demands that the Monarch sit only as an ordinary member of the National Presbyterian Church of Scotland when in Scotland and not interfere with the affairs of the church.

Reformed

Jurisdictions which recognize a Reformed church as their state religion:

• Tuvalu (Church of Tuvalu)

Historic states with theocratic aspects

The largest and best known theocracies in history were the Umayyad and early Abassid Caliphate, and the Papal States. And as with any other state or empire, pragmatism was part of the politics of these de jure theocracies.

Antiquity

The imperial cults in Ancient Egypt and elsewhere deified the ruling monarch, so that the state religion was dedicated to the worship of the ruler as a deity, or the incarnation of a deity.

Early Israel was ruled by Judges before instituting a monarchy. The Judges were believed to be representatives of YWH or Jehovah God.

In ancient and medieval Christianity, Caesaropapism is the doctrine where a head of state is at the same time the head of the church.

Christian

Geneva, during the period of John Calvin's greatest influence and the Massachusetts Bay Colony of the "Puritans" had many characteristics of Protestant theocracies.

During the short reign (1494–1498) of Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican priest, the city of Florence could have been considered a theocracy. During his rule, un-Christian books, statues, poetry, and other items were burned (in the Bonfire of the Vanities), sodomy was made a capital offense, and other Christian practices became law.

Although having a lay ruler (the King of Jerusalem) the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1299) is considered to have some Theocratic influences.

Also the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector is also considered to have a considerable amount of theocratic influence.

Mormonism

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Another ecclesiocracy was the administration of the short-lived State of Deseret, an independent entity briefly organized in the American West by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Its original borders stretched from western Colorado to the southern California coast. When the Mormons arrived in the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847, the Great Basin was still a part of Mexico and had no secular government. As a result, Brigham Young administered the region both spiritually and temporally through the highly organized and centralized Melchizedek Priesthood. This original organization was based upon a concept called theodemocracy, a governmental system combining Biblical theocracy with mid-19th-century American political ideals, including heavy reliance upon the U.S. Constitution.

The treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo resulted in the Mexican Cession by which Deseret was incorporated into the United States. In 1849, the Saints organized a secular government in Utah, although many ecclesiatical leaders maintained their positions of secular power. The Mormons also petitioned Congress to have Deseret admitted into the Union as a state. However, under the Compromise of 1850, Utah Territory was created and Brigham Young was appointed governor. In this situation, Young still stood as head of the LDS Church as well as Utah's secular government.

After the abortive Utah War of 1857–1858, the replacement of Young by an outside Federal Territorial Governor, the eventual resolution of controversies regarding plural marriage, and accession by Utah to statehood, the apparent temporal aspects of LDS theodemocracy receded markedly. However, — like many Christians, Jews, and Muslims — Latter-day Saints regard some form of theocracy with God as the head (king) of a chiliastic world government to be the true political ideal. But, until the Second Coming of Christ, the Mormons teach in their 12th Article of Faith: submission to the powers that be. But true to their beliefs in individual liberty and moral accountability, they exhibit a strong preference for democratic-republican, representative government as embodied in the Constitution of the United States.

Montenegro

Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro offers a singular example of monarchs willingly turning their power to ecclesiastic authority (Montenegrin Orthodox), as the last of the House of Crnojević (styled Grand Voivode, not sovereign princes) did, in order to preserve national unity before the Ottoman onslaught as a separate millet under an autochthonous ethnarch. When Montenegro re-established secular dynastic succession by the proclamation of princedom in 1851, it did so in favor of the last Prince-bishop, who changed his style from Vladika i upravitelj Crne Gore i Brde "Vladika (Bishop) and Ruler of Montenegro and Brda" to Po Bozjoj milosti knjaz i gospodar Crne Gore i Brde "By the grace of God Prince and Sovereign of Montenegro and Brda", thus rendering his de facto dynasty (the Petrović-Njegoš family since 1696) a hereditary one.

Islam

The period when Medina was ruled by the Islamic prophet Muhammad is occasionally classed as a theocracy. By 630, Muhammad had established a theocracy in Makkah. Most Sunni Muslims believe that only the Prophet Muhammad was able to be both a governmental as well as religious leader. Other plausible examples of Islamic theocracy might be Mahdist Sudan and the Taliban state in Afghanistan (1996–2001). Also the governing is also done by a Caliphate with smaller levels of governing done by Qazi also known as Qadi. Most irregular was the non-permanent rule of the Akhoonds (imams) in the later princely state of Swat, a valley in (first British India's, later Pakistan's) North-West Frontier Province. Theocratic movements arose in the Arab world in the 1970s.

Buddhism

Unified religious rule in Tibet began in 1642, when the Fifth Dalai Lama allied with the military power of the Mongol Gushri Khan to consolidate the political power and center control around his office as head of the Gelug school.^[37] This form of government is known as the dual system of government. Prior to 1642, particular monasteries and monks had held considerable power throughout Tibet, but had not achieved anything approaching complete control, though power continued to be held in a diffuse, feudal system after the ascension of the Fifth Dalai Lama. Power in Tibet was held by a number of traditional elites, including members of the nobility, the heads of the major Buddhist sects (including their various tulkus), and various large and influential monastic communities.^[38] As the modern Chinese propaganda describes it, Tibet during this period existed as a feudal theocracy, with a large class of serfs (consisting largely of non-noble Buddhist laymen) working on estates owned by monastic leaders and members of the secular aristocracy.^[39]

Political power was sometimes used by monastic leaders to suppress rival religious schools through the confiscation of property and direct violence.^[37][39] Social mobility was somewhat possible through the attainment of a monastic education, or recognition as a reincarnated teacher, but such institutions were dominated by the traditional elites and governed by political intrigue.^[38] Non-Buddhists in Tibet were members of an outcast underclass.^[38]

The Bogd Khaanate period of Mongolia (1911-1919) is also cited as a former Buddhist theocracy.

Fictional theocracies

Depictions of a fictional society dominated by a theocracy recur in science fiction, speculative fiction and fantasy. Such depictions are mostly dystopian, and in some cases humorous or satirical.

• The Earthquake in Chile, By Heinrich von Kleist (1807)
• Voyagers VI The Return, By Ben Bova
• If This Goes On—/Revolt in 2100 by Robert Heinlein (1940, revised and expanded 1953)
• Gather, Darkness by Fritz Leiber (1943)
• The Lovers by Philip Jose Farmer (1952 novella, expanded to full length 1961, revised 1977) [1]
• A Woman a Day (also "Moth and Rust" and "The Day of Timestop") by Philip Jose Farmer (1953 novella, expanded to full length 1960, same universe as "The Lovers")
• Messiah by Gore Vidal (1954) ISBN 0-14-118039-0
• Lord of Light by Roger Zelazny (1967)
• The Last Starship from Earth by John Boyd (1968)
• The Goblin Tower by L. Sprague de Camp (1968) (episode set in the theocratic city-state of Tarxia)
• The Stork Factor by Zach Hughes (1975)
• Run, Come See Jerusalem! by Richard C. Meredith (1976)
• The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood (1985). See Republic of Gilead.
• Candle by John Barnes (2000) . New York: Tor. ISBN 0-8125-8968-8.
• The Sky So Big and Black by John Barnes (2003) . New York: Tor. ISBN 0-7653-4222-7
• The Accidental Time Machine by Joe Haldeman (2007)
• In Fire Emblem: The Sacred Stones, Pontifex Mansel leads the Theocracy of Rausten.
• The alien alliance known as "the Covenant" in the Halo series.
• Atlantis in Age of Mythology is supposed to be governed by a theocrat. The politics are not explored however, and it is not stated how the theocrat kept himself in power when the gods abandoned the civilisation in the expansion pack's campaign.
• The Amarr Empire in EVE Online
• In Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance, Begnion is a theocracy worshipping the goddess Ashera. It is ruled by Apostle Sanaki.

See also

Christian:

• Christian Reconstructionism
• Divine Right of Kings
• Dominionism
• Falange
• National Catholicism
• Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Rexism
• Theonomy
• Ustaše

Islamic:

• Iranian Revolution
• Islamic banking
• Islamic republic
• Islamic state
• Islamism
• Political aspects of Islam
• Religious police
• Qutbism
• Taliban
• Wahhabi

Other:

• Khalistan
• Unification Church and political involvement

References

Further reading

• Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research, vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. 
• Hirschl, Ran. Constitutional Theocracy. Harvard University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-674-04819-9, 978-0-674-04819-5.

External links

Look up theocracy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Biblical Theocracy, etext of a book by Stephen Palmquist (Philopsychy Press, 1993).
• EtymologyOnLine
• Is Judaism a Theocracy? chabad.org
• First Things, August/September 2006, p. 23-30 – Theocracy, Theocracy, Theocracy
• Caliphate: The Future of Islamic Theocracy
• Freedom of Religion in Israel