vegetarianism

Definition

Vegetarianism is the voluntary abstinence from eating meat. Vegetarians refrain from eating meat for various reasons, including religious, health, and ethical ones. Lacto-ovo vegetarians supplement their diet with dairy (lactose) products and eggs (ovo). Vegans (pronounced vee-guns) do not eat any animal-derived products at all.

Description

The term vegetarian was coined in 1847 by the founders of the Vegetarian Society of Great Britain, but vegetarianism has been around as long as people have created diets. Some of the world's oldest cultures advocate a vegetarian diet for health and religious purposes. In India, millions of Hindus are vegetarians because of their religious beliefs. One of the ancient mythological works of Hinduism, the Mahabharata, states that, "Those who desire to possess good memory, beauty, long life with perfect health, and physical, moral and spiritual strength, should abstain from animal foods." The yoga system of living and health is vegetarian, because its dietary practices are based on the belief that healthy food contains prana. Prana is the universal life energy, which yoga experts believe is abundant in fresh fruits, grains, nuts and vegetables, but absent in meat because meat has been killed. Yogis also believe that spiritual health is influenced by the practice of ahimsa, or not harming living beings. The principle of ahimsa (non-violence) appears in the Upanishads (Vedic literature) from c. 600–300 B.C. Taking of animal life or human life under any circumstances is sinful and results in rebirth as a lower organism. It became a fundamental element of Jainism, another religion of India. Some Buddhists in Japan and China are also vegetarian because of spiritual beliefs. In the Christian tradition, the Trappist Monks of the Catholic Church are vegetarian, and some vegetarians argue that there is evidence that Jesus and his early followers were vegetarian. Other traditional cultures, such as those in the Middle East and the Mediterranean regions, have evolved diets that frequently consist of vegetarian foods. The Mediterranean diet, which a Harvard study declared to be one of the world's healthiest, is primarily, although not strictly, vegetarian.

The list of famous vegetarians forms an illustrious group. The ancient Greek philosophers, including Socrates, Plato, and Pythagoras, advocated vegetarianism. In modern times, the word to describe someone who likes to feast on food and wine is "epicure," but it is little known that Epicurus, the ancient philosopher, was himself a diligent vegetarian. Other famous vegetarians include Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Leo Tolstoy, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry Thoreau. This century's celebrated vegetarians include Gandhi, the physician Albert Schweitzer, writer George Bernard Shaw, musician Paul McCartney, and champion triathlete Dave Scott. Albert Einstein, although not a strict vegetarian himself, stated that a vegetarian diet would be an evolutionary step for the human race.

Vegetarianism in America received a lot of interest during the last half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, during periods of experimentation with diets and health practices. Vegetarianism has also been a religious practice for some Americans, including the Seventh-day Adventists, whose lacto-ovo vegetarian diets have been studied for their health benefits. Vegetarianism has been steadily gaining acceptance as an alternative to the meat-and-potatoes bias of the traditional American diet. In 1997, Vegetarian Resource Group performed a Roper poll that showed that 13 million Americans, or 5% of the population, identified themselves as vegetarians.

Several factors contribute to the interest in vegetarianism in America. Outbreaks of food poisoning from meat products, as well as increased concern over the additives in meat such as hormones and antibiotics, have led some people and professionals to question meat's safety. There is also an increased awareness of the questionable treatment of farm animals in factory farming. But the growing health consciousness of Americans is probably the major reason for the surge in interest in vegetarianism. Nutrition experts have built up convincing evidence that there are major problems with the conventional American diet, which is centered around meat products that are high in cholesterol and saturated fat and low in fiber. Heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, which cause 68% of all deaths in America, are all believed to be influenced by this diet. Nutritionists have repeatedly shown in studies that a healthy diet consists of plenty of fresh vegetables and fruits, complex carbohydrates such as whole grains, and foods that are high in fiber and low in cholesterol and saturated fat. Vegetarianism, a diet that fulfills all these criteria, has become part of many healthy lifestyles. In alternative medicine, vegetarianism is a cornerstone dietary therapy, used in Ayurvedic medicine, detoxification treatments, macrobiotics, the Ornish diet for heart disease, and in therapies for many chronic conditions.

— Douglas Dupler

For more information on vegetarianism, visit Britannica.com.

Definition

Vegetarianism refers to voluntary abstinence from eating meat. Vegetarians refrain from eating meat for various reasons, including religious, health, and ethical ones. Lacto-ovo vegetarians supplement their diet with dairy (lactose) products and eggs (ovo). Vegans (pronounced vee-guns) do not eat any animal-derived products at all.

Origins

The term vegetarian was coined in 1847 by the founders of the Vegetarian Society of Great Britain, but vegetarianism has been around as long as people have created diets. Some of the world's oldest cultures advocate a vegetarian diet for health and religious purposes. In India, millions of Hindus are vegetarians because of their religious beliefs. One of the ancient mythological works of Hinduism, the Mahabharata, states that, "Those who desire to possess good memory, beauty, long life with perfect health, and physical, moral and spiritual strength, should abstain from animal foods." The yoga system of living and health is vegetarian, because its dietary practices are based on the belief that healthy food contains prana. Prana is the universal life energy, which yoga experts believe is abundant in fresh fruits, grains, nuts and vegetables, but absent in meat because meat has been killed. Yogis also believe that spiritual health in influenced by the practice of ahimsa, or not harming living beings. The principle of ahimsa (non-violence) appears in the Upanishads (Vedic literature) from c. 600–300 B.C. Taking of animal life or human life under any circumstances is sinful and results in rebirth as a lower organism. It became a fundamental element of Jainism, another religion of India. Some Buddhists in Japan and China are also vegetarian because of spiritual beliefs. In the Christian tradition, the Trappist Monks of the Catholic Church are vegetarian, and some vegetarians argue that there is evidence that Jesus and his early followers were vegetarian. Other traditional cultures, such as those in the Middle East and the Mediterranean regions, have evolved diets that frequently consist of vegetarian foods. The Mediterranean diet, which a Harvard study declared to be one of the world's healthiest, is primarily, although not strictly, vegetarian.

The list of famous vegetarians forms an illustrious group. The ancient Greek philosophers, including Socrates, Plato, and Pythagoras, advocated vegetarianism. In modern times, the word to describe someone who likes to feast on food and wine is "epicure," but it is little known that Epicurus, the ancient philosopher, was himself a diligent vegetarian. Other famous vegetarians include Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Leo Tolstoy, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry Thoreau. This century's celebrated vegetarians include Gandhi, the physician Albert Schweitzer, writer George Bernard Shaw, musician Paul McCartney, and champion triathlete Dave Scott. Albert Einstein, although not a strict vegetarian himself, stated that a vegetarian diet would be an evolutionary step for the human race.

Vegetarianism in America received a lot of interest during the last half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, during periods of experimentation with diets and health practices. Vegetarianism has also been a religious practice for some Americans, including the Seventh-day Adventists, whose lactoovo vegetarian diets have been studied for their health benefits. Vegetarianism has been steadily gaining acceptance as an alternative to the meat-and-potatoes bias of the traditional American diet. In 1992, Vegetarian Times magazine performed a poll that showed that 13 million Americans, or 5% of the population, identified themselves as vegetarians.

Several factors contribute to the interest in vegetarianism in America. Outbreaks of food poisoning from meat products, as well as increased concern over the additives in meat such as hormones and antibiotics, have led some people and professionals to question meat's safety. There is also an increased awareness of the questionable treatment of farm animals in factory farming. But the growing health consciousness of Americans is probably the major reason for the surge in interest in vegetarianism. Nutrition experts have built up convincing evidence that there are major problems with the conventional American diet, which is centered around meat products that are high in cholesterol and saturated fat and low in fiber. Heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, which cause 68% of all deaths in America, are all believed to be influenced by this diet. Nutritionists have repeatedly shown in studies that a healthy diet consists of plenty of fresh vegetables and fruits, complex carbohydrates such as whole grains, and foods that are high in fiber and low in cholesterol and saturated fat. Vegetarianism, a diet that fulfills all these criteria, has become part of many healthy lifestyles. In alternative medicine, vegetarianism is a cornerstone dietary therapy, used in Ayurvedic medicine, detoxification treatments, macro-biotics, the Ornish diet for heart disease, and in therapies for many chronic conditions.

Benefits

Vegetarianism is recommended as a dietary therapy for a variety of conditions, including heart disease, high cholesterol, type 2 diabetes, and stroke. Vegetarianism is a major dietary therapy in the alternative treatment of cancer. Other conditions treated with a dietary therapy of vegetarianism include obesity, osteoporosis, arthritis, allergies, asthma, environmental illness, hypertension, gout, gallstones, hemorrhoids, kidney stones, ulcers, colitis, premenstrual syndrome, anxiety, and depression. Vegetarians often report higher energy levels, better digestion, and mental clarity. Vegetarianism is an economical and easily implemented preventative practice as well.

Preparations

Some people, particularly those with such severe or chronic conditions as heart disease or cancer, may be advised by a health practitioner to become vegetarian suddenly. For most people, nutritionists recommend that a vegetarian diet be adopted gradually, to allow people's bodies and lifestyles time to adjust to new eating habits and food intake.

Some nutritionists have designed transition diets to help people become vegetarian in stages. Many Americans eat meat products at nearly every meal, and the first stage of a transition diet is to substitute just a few meals a week with wholly vegetarian foods. Then, particular meat products can be slowly reduced and eliminated from the diet and replaced with vegetarian foods. Red meat can be reduced and then eliminated, followed by pork, poultry, and fish. For those wishing to become strict vegetarians or vegans, the final step would be to substitute eggs and dairy products with other nutrient-rich foods. Individuals should be willing to experiment with transition diets, and should have patience when learning how to combine vegetarianism with such social activities as dining out. Fortunately, the number of restaurants that offer vegetarian dishes, or even all-vegetarian menus, is growing in the United States, particularly along the West Coast.

The transition to vegetarianism can be smoother for those who make informed choices with dietary practices. Sound nutritional guidelines include decreasing the intake of fat, increasing fiber, and emphasizing fresh fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains in the diet while avoiding processed foods and sugar. Everyone can improve their health by becoming familiar with recommended dietary and nutritional practices, such as reading labels and understanding such basic nutritional concepts as daily requirements for calories, protein, fat, and nutrients. Would-be vegetarians can experiment with meat substitutes, foods that are high in protein and essential nutrients. Thanks to the growing interest in vegetarianism, many meat substitutes are now readily available. Tofu and tempeh are products made from soybeans that are high in protein, calcium, and other nutrients. There are "veggie-burgers" that can be grilled like hamburgers, and vegetarian substitutes for turkey and sausage with surprisingly authentic textures and taste. There are many vegetarian cookbooks on the market as well.

A set of guidelines for North American vegetarian diets, updated for 2004, is available from the American Dietetic Association and the Dietitians of Canada. The new guidelines are intended to promote variety within vegetarian diets and to meet the needs of different stages in the life cycle as well as incorporate the most recent findings of medical research.

One remaining drawback to the widespread practice of vegetarianism is the unpleasant taste or smell of many vegetables. A number of phytonutrients have a bitter, astringent, or acrid taste that they impart to products made from vegetables that contain them. Some experts think that people tend to reject such strong-smelling or bitter-tasting vegetables as turnips, cabbage, brussels sprouts, or broccoli because humans have been programmed in the course of evolution to associate bitter taste with poisonous plants. It is increasingly recognized that the major barrier to dietary change for the sake of health is taste. One recommendation for improving the taste appeal of vegetarian diets is more frequent use of spices. In addition to pleasing the human palate, spices derived from plants have been shown to have chemoprotective effects, boosting the immune system, reducing inflammation, and fighting harmful bacteria and viruses.

Precautions

In general, a well-planned vegetarian diet is healthful and safe; in the summer of 2003, a position paper endorsed by the American Dietetic Association and the Dietitians of Canada referred to vegetarian diets as "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and [able to] provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." However, vegetarians, and particularly vegans who eat no animal products, should be aware of particular nutrients that may be lacking in non-animal diets. These are amino acids, vitamin B₁₂, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, and essential fatty acids. Furthermore, pregnant women, growing children, and those with health conditions have higher requirements for these nutrients.

Vegetarians should be aware of getting complete protein in their diets. A complete protein contains all of the essential amino acids, which are the building blocks for protein essential to the diet because the body cannot make them. Meat and dairy products generally contain complete proteins, but most vegetarian foods such as grains and legumes contain incomplete proteins, lacking one or more of the essential amino acids. However, vegetarians can easily overcome this by combining particular foods in order to create complete proteins. For instance, beans are high in the amino acid lysine but low in tryptophan and methionine, but rice is low in lysine and high in tryptophan and methionine. Thus, combining rice and beans makes a complete protein. In general, combining legumes such as soy, lentils, beans, and peas with grains like rice, wheat, or oats forms complete proteins. Eating dairy products or nuts with grains also makes proteins complete. Oatmeal with milk on it is complete, as is peanut butter on whole wheat bread. Proteins do not necessarily need to be combined in the same meal, but generally within four hours.

Getting enough vitamin B₁₂ may be an issue for some vegetarians, particularly vegans, because meat and dairy products are the main sources. Vitamin supplements that contain vitamin B₁₂ are recommended, particularly for older vegetarians. Spirulina, a nutritional supplement made from algae, is also a vegetarian source, as are fortified soy products and nutritional yeast.

Vitamin D can be obtained by vitamins, fortified foods, and sunshine. Calcium can be obtained in enriched tofu, seeds, nuts, legumes, dairy products, and dark green vegetables including broccoli, kale, spinach, and collard greens. Iron is found in raisins, figs, legumes, tofu, whole grains (particularly whole wheat), potatoes, and dark green leafy vegetables. Iron is absorbed more efficiently by the body when iron-containing foods are eaten with foods that contain vitamin C, such as fruits, tomatoes, and green vegetables. Zinc is abundant in nuts, pumpkin seeds, legumes, whole grains, and tofu. For vegetarians who don't eat fish, getting enough omega-3 essential fatty acids may be an issue, and supplements such as flaxseed oil should be considered, as well as eating walnuts and canola oil.

Vegetarians do not necessarily have healthier diets. Some studies have shown that some vegetarians consume large amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat. Eggs and dairy products contain cholesterol and saturated fat, while nuts, oils, and avocados are vegetable sources of saturated fat. To reap the full benefits of a vegetarian diet, vegetarians should be conscious of cholesterol and saturated fat intake. Vegetarians may also consider buying organic foods, which are grown without the use of synthetic chemicals, as another health precaution. Lastly, consuming large quantities of vegetables without other carbohydrates and sources of protein can produce its own kind of dietary imbalance. Cases have been reported of carotenemia, which is a yellowish discoloration of the skin caused by high levels of carotene, a fat-soluble plant pigment turned into vitamin A in the liver. In one instance, the patient developed blood carotene levels nine times higher than normal values after putting himself on a diet that involved eating 2–3 pounds of vegetables every day. While carotenemia resulting from high vegetable intake has no known lasting consequences to health, it is still an indication of the importance of balance in vegetarian diets.

Research & General Acceptance

A vegetarian diet has many well-documented health benefits. It has been shown that vegetarians have a higher life expectancy, as much as several years, than those who eat a meat-centered diet. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that data have shown vegetarians to have a strong or significant probability against contracting obesity, heart disease, lung cancer, colon cancer, alcoholism, hypertension, diabetes, gallstones, gout, kidney stones, and ulcers. However, the FDA also points out that vegetarians tend to have healthy lifestyle habits, so other factors may contribute to their increased health besides diet alone.

Vegetarianism has been associated with for many decades with abstinence from other habit-forming substances, including alcohol and tobacco. There is evidence, however, that this long-standing connection between vegetarianism and other health-conscious practices is breaking down. A recent study of Scandinavian teenage vegetarians found that there was no difference between their lifestyles and those of meat-eating peers with regard to smoking, alcohol consumption, exercise, or weight. Partly because of this trend, physicians in family practice as well as those in sports medicine are increasingly recommending nutritional counseling for vegetarian teens.

A vegetarian diet, as prescribed by Dr. Dean Ornish, has been shown to improve heart disease and reverse the effects of atherosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries. It should be noted that Dr. Ornish's diet was used in conjunction with exercise, stress reduction, and other holistic methods. The Ornish diet is lacto-ovo vegetarian, because it allows the use of egg whites and nonfat dairy products.

Vegetarians have a resource of statistics in their favor when it comes to presenting persuasive arguments in favor of their eating habits. Vegetarians claim that a vegetarian diet is a major step in improving the health of citizens and the environment. Americans eat over 200 lbs (91 kg) of meat per person per year. The incidence of heart disease, cancer diabetes, and other diseases has increased along with a dramatic increase in meat consumption during the past century. Many statistics show significantly smaller risks for vegetarians contracting certain conditions. The risks of women getting breast cancer and men contracting prostrate cancer are nearly four times as high for frequent meat eaters as for those who eat meat sparingly or not at all. For heart attacks, American men have a 50% risk of having one, but the risk drops down to 15% for lacto-ovo vegetarians and to only 4% for vegans. For cancer, studies of populations around the world have implied that plant-based diets have lower associated risks for certain types of cancer.

Vegetarians claim other reasons for adopting a meat-free diet. One major concern is the amount of pesticides and synthetic additives such as hormones that show up in meat products. Chemicals tend to accumulate in the tissue of animals that are higher in the food chain, a process called bioaccumulation. Vegetarians, by not eating meat, can avoid the exposure to these accumulated toxins, many of which are known to influence the development of cancer. One study showed that DDT, a cancer-causing pesticide, was present in significant levels in mother's milk for 99% of American women, but only 8% of vegetarian women had significant levels of the pesticide. Women who eat meat had 35 times higher levels of particular pesticides than vegetarian women. The synthetic hormones and antibiotics added to American cattle has led some European countries to ban American beef altogether. The widespread use of antibiotics in livestock has made many infectious agents more resistant to them, making some diseases harder to treat.

Vegetarians resort to ethical and environmental arguments as well when supporting their food choices. Much of U.S. agriculture is dedicated to producing meat, which is an expensive and resource-depleting practice. It has been estimated that 1.3 billion people could be fed with the grain that America uses to feed livestock, and starvation is a major problem in world health. Producing meat places a heavy burden on natural resources, as compared to growing grain and vegetables. One acre of land can grow approximately 40,000 lbs (18,000 kg) of potatoes or 250 lbs (113 kg) of beef, and it takes 50,000 gal (200,000 l) of water to produce 1 lb (0.45 kg) of California beef but only 25 gal (100 l) of water to produce 1 lb (0.45 kg) of wheat. Half of all water used in America is for livestock production. Vegetarians argue that the American consumption of beef may also be contributing to global warming, by the large amounts of fossil fuels used in its production. The South American rainforest is being cleared to support American's beef consumption, as the United States yearly imports 300 million lbs (136 million kg) of meat from Central and South America. The production of meat has been estimated as causing up to 85% of the loss of topsoil of America's farmlands. A German researcher in the field of nutrition ecology hs summarized the environmental benefits of vegetarian diets: "Research shows that vegetarian diets are well suited to protect the environment, to reduce pollution, and to minimize global climate changes."

Despite the favorable statistics, vegetarianism does have its opponents. The meat industry in America is a powerful organization that has spent millions of dollars over decades advertising the benefits of eating meat. Vegetarians point out that life-long eating habits are difficult to change for many people, despite research showing that vegetarian diets can provide the same nutrients as meat-centered diets.

Resources

Books

Akers, Keith. A Vegetarian Sourcebook. New York: Putnam, 1993.

Null, Gary. The Vegetarian Handbook. New York: St. Martins, 1987.

Pelletier, Kenneth R., MD. The Best Alternative Medicine, Part I: Food for Thought. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Robbins, John. Diet for a New America. Walpole, NH: Still-point, 1987.

Periodicals

American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada. "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian Diets." Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 64 (Summer 2003): 62–81.

Berger, Joanne M. "Curiously Yellow." Family Practice News 32 (September 1, 2002): 47.

Fornell-Barratt, Anne, and Adam Drewnowski. "The Taste of Health: Nature's Bitter Gifts." Nutrition Today 37 (July-August 2002): 144-150.

Greydanus, D. E., and D. R. Patel. "Sports Doping in the Adolescent Athlete: The Hope, Hype, and Hyperbole." Pediatric Clinics of North America 49 (August 2002): 829-855.

Jenkins, D. J., C. W. Kendall, A. Marchie, et al. "Type 2 Diabetes and the Vegetarian Diet." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (September 2003) (3 Suppl): 610S–616S.

Kwok, E., G. Cheng, J. Woo, et al. "Independent Effect of Vitamin B₁₂ Deficiency on Hematological Status in Older Chinese Vegetarian Women." American Journal of Hematology 70 (July 2002): 186-190.

Lampe, J. W. "Spicing Up a Vegetarian Diet: Chemopreventive Effects of Phytochemicals." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (September 2003) (Suppl 3): 579S–583S.

Larsson, C. L., K. S. Klock, A. Nordrehaug-Astrom, et al. "Lifestyle-Related Characteristics of Young Low-Meat Consumers and Omnivores in Sweden and Norway." Journal of Adolescent Health 31 (August 2002): 190-198.

Leitzmann, C. "Nutrition Ecology: The Contribution of Vegetarian Diets." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (September 2003) (Suppl 3): 657S–659S.

Messina, V., V. Melina, and A. R. Mangels. "A New Food Guide for North American Vegetarians." Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 64 (Summer 2003): 82–86.

Organizations

American Dietetic Association. 216 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60606. (312) 899-0040. .

Dietitians of Canada/Les diététistes du Canada. 480 University Avenue, Suite 604, Toronto, ON M5G IV2. (416) 596-0857. .

North American Vegetarian Society (NAVS). PO Box 72, Dolgeville, NY 13329. (518) 568-7970.

Other

Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group (VRG). PO Box 1463, Baltimore, MD 21203.

Vegetarian Times. 4 High Ridge Park, Stamford, CT 06905. (877) 321-1796.

Vegetarian Nutrition and Health Letter. 1707 Nichol Hall, Loma Linda, CA 92350. (888) 558-8703.

[Article by: Douglas Dupler; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

Definition

Vegetarianism is the voluntary abstinence from eating meat. Vegetarians refrain from eating meat for various reasons, including religious, health, and ethical ones. Lacto-ovo vegetarians supplement their diet with dairy (lactose) products and eggs (ovo). Vegans (pronounced vee-guns) do not eat any animal-derived products at all.

Description

Vegetarianism has been steadily gaining acceptance as an alternative to the meat-and-potatoes bias of the traditional American diet. Several factors contribute to the interest in vegetarianism in the United States. Outbreaks of food poisoning from meat products, as well as increased concern over the additives in meat such as hormones and antibiotics, have led some people and professionals to question meat's safety. There is also an increased awareness of the questionable treatment of farm animals in factory farming.

But the growing health consciousness of Americans is probably the major reason for the surge in interest in vegetarianism. Nutrition experts have built up convincing evidence that there are major problems with the conventional American diet, which is centered on meat products that are high in cholesterol and saturated fat and low in fiber. Heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, which cause 68 percent of all deaths in America, are all believed to be influenced by this diet.

A vegetarian diet has many well-documented health benefits. It has been shown that vegetarians have a longer life expectancy than those who eat a meat-centered diet. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that data has shown vegetarians to have a strong or significant probability against contracting obesity, heart disease, lung cancer, colon cancer, alcoholism, hypertension, diabetes, gallstones, gout, kidney stones, and ulcers. However, the FDA also points out that vegetarians tend to have healthy lifestyle habits, so other factors may contribute to their increased health besides diet alone.

Vegetarians have a huge number of statistics in their favor when it comes to presenting persuasive arguments in favor of their eating habits. Vegetarians claim that a vegetarian diet is a major step in improving the health of citizens and the environment. Americans eat over 200 pounds (91 kilograms) of meat per person per year. The incidence of heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and other diseases has increased along with the dramatic increase in meat consumption during the twentieth century.

Many statistics show significantly smaller risks for vegetarians contracting certain conditions. The risks of women getting breast cancer and men contracting prostrate cancer are nearly four times as high for frequent meat eaters as for those who eat meat sparingly or not at all. For heart attacks, American men have a 50 percent risk of having one, but the risk drops to 15 percent for lacto-ovo vegetarians, and to only 4 percent for vegans. For cancer, studies of populations around the world have implied that plant-based diets have lower associated risks for certain types of cancer.

Nutritionists have repeatedly shown in studies that a healthy diet consists of plenty of fresh vegetables and fruits, complex carbohydrates such as whole grains, and foods that are high in fiber and low in cholesterol and saturated fat. Vegetarianism, a diet that fulfills all these criteria, has become part of many healthy lifestyles.

Some nutritionists have designed transition diets to help people become vegetarian in stages. Many Americans eat meat products at nearly every meal, and the first stage of a transition diet is to substitute just a few meals a week with wholly vegetarian foods. Then, particular meat products can be slowly reduced and eliminated from the diet and replaced with vegetarian foods. Red meat can be reduced and then eliminated, followed by pork, poultry, and fish. For those wishing to become pure vegetarians or vegans, the final step is to choose other nutrient-rich foods in order to eliminate eggs and dairy products. Individuals should be willing to experiment with transition diets and should have patience when learning how combine vegetarianism with social activities such as dining out.

The transition to vegetarianism can be smoother for adolescents who make informed choices with dietary practices. Sound nutritional guidelines include decreasing the intake of fat, increasing fiber, and emphasizing fresh fruits, fresh vegetables, beans and lentils, and whole grains in the diet while avoiding processed foods and sugar.

Thanks to the growing interest in vegetarianism, many meat substitutes are now readily available. Tofu and tempeh are made from soybeans that are high in protein, calcium, and other nutrients. There are "veggieburgers" that can be grilled like hamburgers, and vegetarian substitutes for hot dogs, corn dogs, chicken, turkey, ham, bologna, pastrami, and sausage with surprisingly authentic textures and taste. Major vegetarian meat substitute brands include Morningstar Farms, Boca, Gardenburger, and Lightlife. There are many vegetarian cookbooks on the market as well as magazines such as Vegetarian Times, Veggie Life, and Vegetarian Journal.

Famous vegetarians, past and present, include Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Leo Tolstoy, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Gandhi, physician Albert Schweitzer, writer George Bernard Shaw, champion tri-athlete Dave Scott, and musicians Paul McCartney, George Harrison, John Lennon, Yoko Ono, Alanis Morissette, Bob Dylan, and Bruce Springsteen.

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Preschool

Babies, toddlers, and preschoolers can do well on a vegetarian diet, especially one that includes eggs and dairy products. If they are not included, the young child may suffer from shortages of vitamins B12, B2, and D; protein; calcium; and zinc. The child may also need iron supplements because iron in plant food is not absorbed well.

Infants and toddlers require many calories in order to grow at the normal rate. At about seven to eight months of age, babies are ready to start eating protein-rich foods. Instead of pureed meats, vegetarian infants should be given protein alternatives such as pureed peas, beans, and lentils, cottage cheese, pureed tofu, and yogurt.

It is important that toddlers eat high-calorie vegetarian foods such as diced nuts, olives, dates, and avocados so they get enough calories. Most importantly, parents should make sure a vegetarian child eats a wide variety of foods, according to a 2002 advisory from the journal Clinical Reference Systems.

Parents must take care to insure the child gets enough food for growth, since a vegetarian diet relies heavily on bulk foods that are filling but usually short of calories. Parents who are vegetarians and want their baby to be one should discuss the topic with a pediatrician. Young children who are vegetarians should be monitored regularly to make sure their weight and height are appropriate for their age.

School Age

About 2 percent of Americans age six to 17 (about 1 million) are vegetarian, the same percentage as among American adults, and 0.5 percent are vegan, according to a 2002 survey by the Vegetarian Resource Group (VRG). Six percent of six to 17 year olds do not eat meat but do eat fish and/or poultry.

Teens who follow a vegetarian diet are more likely to meet recommendations for total fat, saturated fat, and number of servings of fruits and vegetables as compared to non-vegetarians. They also have higher intakes of iron, vitamin A, fiber, and diet soda, and lower intakes of vitamin B12, cholesterol, and fast food. Most teens, whether they were vegetarian or not, do not meet recommendations for calcium, according to the VRG survey.

The survey concluded that rather than viewing adolescent vegetarianism as a phase or fad, the diet could be viewed as a healthy alternative to the traditional American meat-based diet. The survey also stated that vegetarian diets in adolescence could lead to lifelong health-promoting dietary practices. The survey was reported in the July-August 2002 issue of the VRG publication Vegetarian Journal.

Common Problems

In general, a well-planned vegetarian diet is healthy and safe. However, vegetarians, and particularly vegans who eat no animal products, need to be aware of particular nutrients that may be lacking in non-animal diets. These are amino acids, vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, and essential fatty acids. Infants and growing children have higher requirements for these nutrients.

Vegetarians should be aware of getting complete protein in their diets. A complete protein contains all of the essential amino acids, which are the building blocks for protein essential to the diet because the body cannot make them. Meat and dairy products generally contain complete proteins, but most vegetarian foods such as grains and beans contain incomplete proteins, lacking one or more of the essential amino acids. However, vegetarians can easily overcome this by combining particular foods in order to create complete proteins. For instance, beans are high in the amino acid lysine but low in tryptophan and methionine, but rice is low in lysine and high in tryptophan and methionine. Thus, combining rice and beans makes a complete protein.

Eating dairy products or nuts with grains also makes proteins complete. Oatmeal with milk on it is complete, as is peanut butter on whole wheat bread. Proteins do not necessarily need to be combined in the same meal, but generally within four hours.

Getting enough vitamin B12 may be an issue for some vegetarians, particularly vegans, because meat and dairy products are the main sources. Vitamin supplements that contain vitamin B12 are recommended. Spirulina, a nutritional supplement made from algae, is also a vegetarian source, as are fortified soy products and nutritional yeast.

Vitamin D can be obtained by vitamins, fortified foods, and sunshine. Calcium can be obtained in enriched tofu, seeds, nuts, beans, dairy products, and dark green vegetables, including broccoli, kale, spinach, and collard greens. Iron is found in raisins, figs, beans, tofu, whole grains, potatoes, and dark green leafy vegetables. Iron is absorbed more efficiently by the body when iron-containing foods are eaten with foods that contain vitamin C, such as fruits, tomatoes, and green vegetables. Zinc is abundant in nuts, pumpkin seeds, beans, whole grains, and tofu.

For vegetarians who do not eat fish, getting enough omega-3 essential fatty acids may be an issue, and supplements such as flaxseed oil should be considered, as well as consumption of walnuts and canola oil. Another essential fatty acid, omega-6, found in fish, can be obtained from borage oil or evening primrose oil supplements.

Vegetarians do not necessarily have healthier diets. Some studies have shown that some vegetarians consume large amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat. It is quite possible to be a vegetarian yet eat an unhealthy fast-food or junk food diet. Eggs and dairy products contain cholesterol and saturated fat, while nuts, oils, and avocados are vegetable sources of saturated fat. To reap the full benefits of a vegetarian diet, vegetarians should be conscious of cholesterol and saturated fat intake.

Parental Concerns

Parents should closely monitor their vegetarian child's height, weight, and general health. A child who is not getting enough vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients may have symptoms such as skin rashes, fatigue, a painful and swollen tongue, irritability, pale skin, mental slowness, or difficulty breathing. The diets of vegetarian adolescents should be monitored closely to make sure they are eating a variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, beans, whole grains, and non-meat protein sources.

When to Call the Doctor

Parents should consult their child's pediatrician or physician if they are unsure the child's vegetarian diet is nutritionally adequate. A doctor should also be consulted if a child's weight or height is not appropriate for their age.

Resources

Books

Poneman, Debra, and Emily Anderson Greene. What, No Meat?! What to Do When Your Kid Becomes a Vegetarian. Toronto, ON (Canada): ECW Press, 2003.

Schwartz, Ellen, and Farida Zaman. I'm a Vegetarian. New York: Tundra Books, 2002.

Stepaniak, Joanne, and Vesanto Melina. Raising Vegetarian Children. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

Periodicals

Brayden, Robert. "Vegetarian Diet." Clinical Reference Systems (Annual 2002): 3470.

Grossman, Jeff. "Vegan with a Vengeance: Strict Form of Vegetarianism Attracts Young Adherents." Psychology Today 37 (March-April 2004): 16.

"How Many Teens Are Vegetarian? How Many Kids Don't Eat Meat?" Vegetarian Journal (January 2001): 10.

Mangels, Reed. "Good News about Vegetarian Diets for Teens." Vegetarian Journal 21 (July-August 2002): 20–21.

——. "Vegetarian Journal's Guide to Foods for Vegetarian Teens." Vegetarian Journal (September 2001): 20.

Ortinau, Rebecca. "Proud to Be a Vegetarian." Vegetarian Baby and Child Magazine 4 (September-October 2002): 38–40.

Organizations

American Vegan Society. 56 Dinshah Lane, PO Box 369, Malaga, NJ 08328. Web site: www.americanvegan.org.

The Vegetarian Resource Group. PO Box 1463, Baltimore, MD 21203. Web site: www.vrg.org.

Vegetarian Youth Network. PO Box 1141, New Paltz, NY 12561. Web site: www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/4482/.

Web Sites

Vegetarian Baby and Child Online Magazine, 2004. Available online at www.vegetarianbaby.com (accessed November 14, 2004).

Vegetarianteen.com. Available online at www.vegetarianteen.com (accessed November 15, 2004).

[Article by: Douglas Dupler Rebecca J. Frey, PhD Ken R. Wells]

Different commentators have viewed the transition from vegetarianism to carnivorism in different lights. One view is that by allowing man to eat meat, God, as it were, reluctantly reconciled Himself to the fact that man has a base side to his nature. The other view, as stated by Ḥizkuni (R. Abraham bar Ḥizkiyya), is that since man saved all the creatures in Noah's ark, he now had full dominion over them. Thus, according to the first view, in an ideal world everyone would be a vegetarian, while in the second view there is no Jewish reason for a person to refrain from eating meat.

In the Talmud there is no advocacy of vegetarianism. On the other hand, there are clear references to meat eating, such as when R. ḥisda (Shab. 140b) says that, given the choice between vegetables and meat or fish, one should choose meat or fish. In fact, Jewish law requires one to eat meat on the Sabbath and festivals. In the Middle Ages, R. Isaac Arama (1420-1494) also regarded the eating of meat a concession made by God. In his view, the manna provided in the desert represented an attempt to lead man back to his prior vegetarian state. The attempt was abandoned when the people insisted on receiving meat.

A number of prominent rabbis, particularly in the last century, have been vegetarians. These include R. A.I. Kook, the first Chief Rabbi of Palestine; R. David Cohen (known as "the Nazir" and a student of R. Kook); R. She'ar Yashuv Cohen (son of the the Nazir and Chief Rabbi of Haifa); and R. Shlomo Goren (first Chief Chaplain of the Israel Defense Forces and later Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel).

The theory and practice of refusing to eat the meat of dead animals; sometimes taken to include refusing to use (exploit) other remains of animals, e.g. by wearing leather. More radical stances include that of vegans, who refuse to use the produce of live animals, such as eggs and milk. Since it is hard to make divisions within the natural order, slippery slopes lead in one direction to the accusation from vegetarians that meat-eaters have no reason for avoiding cannibalism, and in the other direction to the accusation from meat-eaters that vegetarians ought really to respect the lives of cabbages.

Vegetarianism, the practice of eating a diet composed primarily or wholly of vegetables, grains, fruits, nuts, and seeds, with or without eggs and dairy products, was endorsed in the United States in 1838 by the American Health Convention. Various proponents such as William Alcott (1798–1859) advanced the vegetarian cause for ethical and health reasons throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Vegetarianism enjoyed new attention and became a political stance with the counterculture of the 1960s as abuses and inefficiencies of mass-market meat production were brought to light. Still, in 1971 only 1 percent of U.S. citizens described themselves as vegetarians. But vegetarianism became an increasingly attractive and accepted dietary option by the century's end. A 2000 Zogby Poll sponsored by the Vegetarian Resource Group found that 2.5 percent of respondents reported not eating meat, poultry, or fish while 4.5 percent reported not eating meat. Additionally, the National Restaurant Association reported that in 2001 approximately eight out of ten restaurants offered vegetarian entrees.

Bibliography

Root, Waverly Lewis, and Richard de Rochemont. Eating in America: A History. New York, 1976.

Spencer, Colin. The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1995.

The dietary practice and philosophy of vegetarianism dates back to the views of Pythagoras in the fifth century B.C.E., as well as to religious practices associated with Hinduism, Janism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. Historically, support for a vegetarian lifestyle has been grounded in both health and ethical and moral arguments. However, in the United States and Canada health arguments have dominated, and ethical and moral arguments typically have taken a lesser role. While many people become vegetarians because of concern for the treatment of animals raised in factory-like conditions, North Americans more commonly become vegetarians because they believe that it will help them lose weight, have more energy, or ameliorate such health conditions as high blood pressure or heart disease.

While the percentage of North Americans practicing vegetarianism has remained rather consistent at about one percent of the total population (and about 5 to 6 percent in the United Kingdom), social acceptance of this lifestyle increased dramatically in the late twentieth century. In large part, recognition by medical and nutritional authorities that vegetarian diets can be healthful and even desirable when appropriately planned has led to the legitimacy of vegetarian diets and to fewer fears regarding nutritional deficiencies. While the increasing scientific and cultural acceptance of vegetarian diets has not led to a greater percentage of the population adhering to vegetarian diets, more people are experimenting with "semivegetarianism," adding more meatless meals to their weekly menus.

Varieties of Vegetarianism

A wide range of dietary practices falls under the rubric of "vegetarianism." People who practice the strictest version, veganism, do not use any animal products or byproducts. They do not eat meat, poultry, or seafood, nor do they wear leather or wool. They avoid foods that contain such animal by-products as whey and gelatin and do not use products that have been tested on animals.

Other vegetarians limit their avoidances to food. For example, ovo-lacto vegetarians consume eggs and dairy products but not meat, poultry, and seafood. Ovo vegetarians do not consume dairy products, and lacto vegetarians consume dairy products but not eggs. Semivegetarians occasionally consume some or all animal products and may or may not consider themselves vegetarians. Studies suggest that semivegetarians outnumber "true" vegetarians by about four to one.

These terms define the various types of vegetarians by what they do not consume. Consequently, many vegetarians are concerned that nonvegetarians view vegetarian diets as primarily prohibitive and restrictive. They emphasize that following a vegetarian diet often leads people to consume a wider variety of foods than many meat eaters do, as vegetarians often include a wider range of fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes in their diets.

A Brief Historical Perspective

Vegetarianism arrived in the United States in the early 1800s as primarily a religious practice associated with the Bible Christian Church of Philadelphia. The church's leader, William Metcalfe, advocated abstinence from meat as a form of spiritual temperance. In 1830 the Bible Christian Church hired Sylvester Graham, who had been studying medicine in Philadelphia, as a temperance lecturer. Graham soon branched out on his own, turning elements of a religious philosophy into a more secular set of practices in which he advocated abstinence from alcohol, sex, coffee, tea, spices, and of course meat.

Graham's philosophy was rooted in a deep distrust of the emerging industrial revolution of the 1830s and 1840s. He expressed concern that the marketplace was supplanting the role of "hearth and home" in developing moral character and stressed the importance of individual efforts to restore a moral balance in an increasingly chaotic social world. With Metcalfe and such vegetarian advocates as William Alcott and Russell Trall, Graham helped form the American Vegetarian Society in 1850. Many early suffragists and abolitionists, such as Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Horace Greeley, attended the early meetings of this organization.

The vegetarian legacy continued with the efforts of John Harvey Kellogg, who developed cornflakes in 1894. The Seventh Day Adventist Church hired Kellogg in the 1870s to run its Battle Creek Sanatorium, where popular treatments included exercise, hydropathy (water cure), and a vegetarian diet. The Seventh Day Adventist Church continued to endorse and promote vegetarian diets in the twenty-first century, although it did not require its members to adopt them.

Interestingly, although early vegetarianism was strongly associated with religion (first with the Bible Christian Church and then with Seventh Day Adventism), vegetarianism has been primarily a secular rather than a spiritual practice in North America. Even the early vegetarians were encouraged to adopt vegetarianism as a means to good health that would enhance their individual capacities, including their capacity to experience the Divine, and vegetarianism has rarely been promoted as a spiritual path in and of itself. Consequently, despite its historically religious underpinnings, the health aspect of vegetarianism has predominated in the United States and Canada.

Characteristics of Contemporary Vegetarians

While vegetarians probably exhibit more differences than similarities, researchers have discerned several patterns regarding their social backgrounds and statuses. Vegetarians tend to come from predominantly middle-class backgrounds, and a substantially smaller percentage comes from lower social classes. This can be explained by the fact that people who have less money view meat as desirable and associate it with upward social mobility. Therefore, when they have discretionary income, they are likely to use it to purchase meat products. In North America meat is often associated with success and social status. People are only likely to reject meat once they have the opportunity to consume as much as they want.

Gender is another patterned feature of vegetarians in North America. Studies have consistently found that about 70 percent of all vegetarians are female. Several explanations are possible. First, the foods embraced by vegetarian diets are those already symbolically linked with feminine attributes, that is, foods that are light, low-fat, and not bloody (as people often equate blood with strength). For many people meat and masculinity are inextricably linked; therefore it is easier for women than for men to escape cultural expectations. In addition, women tend to be more concerned with weight loss, and many pursue a vegetarian diet as the means to that end. Finally, some researchers hold that women are more likely than men to hold a compassionate attitude toward animals, leading them to have more concern about killing animals for food. All of these factors contribute to the reality that women are more likely than men to become vegetarians.

Studies have suggested that vegetarians may share a variety of other characteristics as well. For example, while vegetarians are less likely than the general population to follow a conventional religion, they are more likely to describe themselves as spiritual and to practice some form of yoga or meditation. They are more likely to describe themselves as "liberal" and less likely to adhere to traditional values that embrace upholding the existing social order. They are also less likely than the general population to smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol. Yet it is important to point out that vegetarians are more different than similar in their social backgrounds, political beliefs, and health practices.

Reasons for Vegetarianism

People become vegetarians for a variety of reasons, including personal health, a concern for the treatment of farm animals and the environment, spiritual beliefs, and sometimes simply a physical disgust toward meat. Most commonly North Americans follow a gradual path toward vegetarianism that starts with a health motivation. They perceive that a vegetarian diet will give them more energy, will help them lose weight, or will assuage a health condition, such as heart disease or cancer. Other people become vegetarians out of a concern for the rights of animals or a belief that meat production causes devastating effects to the environment. Some grew up with or adopted a religion (for example, Hinduism, Jainism, Seventh Day Adventism) that encourages or requires a vegetarian diet. Still others are concerned with world hunger and take the view that many more people can be fed on a vegetarian diet than on a meat-based one.

People tend to first stop eating the foods they view as the most offensive or unhealthy. For most gradual vegetarians this is red meat. The typical path for a new vegetarian is to stop eating red meat first, then poultry, and then fish. Some move to further prohibitions by adopting a vegan lifestyle as they eliminate eggs, dairy products, and other animal by-products. As people progress along the vegetarian "path," they tend to adopt new reasons to support their lifestyle practices. Most commonly people begin with a health motivation and gradually become concerned with the humane treatment of animals and protecting the environment, and many develop a disgust response to meat products.

Scientific Controversy and Gradual Acceptance

After the mid-1800s, the medical establishment responded to advocates' claims that vegetarian diets are healthful and desirable. In the 1800s vegetarians were primarily labeled as "quacks" and were characterized in the popular press as weak, sallow, and emaciated. The notion that vegetarians are weak and lack energy persisted throughout the twentieth century.

In the 1970s dietitians and nutritional scientists focused much attention on vegetarian diets, and many considered them a medical problem. These nutritionists were particularly concerned that vegetarians did not consume adequate protein. During the 1970s and 1980s many articles in nutrition journals debated whether or not vegetarian diets were desirable and gave advice about how to deal with obstinate vegetarian clients. Over time, however, dietitians accepted the idea that vegetable protein derived primarily from grains and legumes is not of lesser quality than protein from meat and other animal-based foods. Eventually dietitians accepted their clients' vegetarian lifestyles and began to help them improve those diets instead of trying to convert them to meat eating.

By the early twenty-first century the American Dietetic Association and the U.S. Department of Agriculture both endorsed the healthfulness of vegetarian diets when they are appropriately planned (just as any diet should be). However, new controversies have arisen, particularly regarding the necessity and desirability of consuming milk and other dairy products. This controversy was spurred in the late 1990s in large part by the view of the renowned pediatrician Benjamin Spock that children should be fed a vegan diet after age two. This stance has generated much debate, as it challenges the deep-seated cultural notion that milk is necessary to build strong bones and to foster physical development.

The Vegetarian Movement

Most people adopt vegetarian diets at least in part as a result of interactions with other practicing vegetarians. People rarely become vegetarians in isolation. Through social interactions, people learn the reasons for adopting vegetarian diets and how to successfully follow them. For example, they learn how to cook vegetarian meals and where to buy foods that will ensure that their new diets are both nutritionally sound and personally satisfying. Consequently, vegetarianism is typically much more of a social experience than an individual experience.

Numerous vegetarian organizations facilitate this social learning. Although they are largely distinct from animal rights and environmental organizations, they sometimes share leadership and other resources. At the national level the American Vegan Society, the North American Vegetarian Society, and EarthSave hold conferences, distribute literature on vegetarian diets, and help form local vegetarian societies. In these local groups people interact, share potluck meals, listen to speakers, and sometimes distribute vegetarian literature to the public at local events.

Other national vegetarian organizations, such as FARM, Vegan Action, and Vegan Outreach, encourage vegetarians to take a more activist stance. The Vegetarian Resource Group distributes well-documented, scientifically oriented literature to the public and works with governmental and professional organizations to advance the movement's goals. All of these groups primarily promote vegetarianism through education and embrace the varied reasons for adopting vegetarian diets.

Bibliography

Amato, Paul R., and Sonia A. Partridge. The New Vegetarians: Promoting Health and Protecting Life. New York: Plenum, 1989. A sociological work based on a survey of vegetarians.

Fox, Michael Allen. Deep Vegetarianism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. A philosophical examination of vegetarianism.

Jabs, Jennifer, Carol M. Devine, and Jeffery Sobal. "Personal Factors, Social Networks, and Environmental Resources." Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 59 (1998): 183–189. A qualitative investigation of the social aspects of maintaining a vegetarian diet.

Marcus, Erik. Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating. Ithaca, N.Y.: McBooks Press, 1998. A vegan's perspective that includes interviews with vegetarian leaders.

Maurer, Donna. Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment? Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002. An analysis of the contemporary vegetarian movement in the United States and Canada.

Melina, Vesanto, Brenda Davis, and Victoria Harrison. Becoming Vegetarian: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Vegetarian Diet. Summertown, Tenn.: Book Publishing, 1995. A guide to vegetarian diets written by three dietitians.

Spencer, Colin. The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1995. A global historical analysis of vegetarianism focusing on its philosophical aspects.

Stepaniak, Joanne. The Vegan Sourcebook. Los Angeles: Lowell House, 1998. A compendium of vegan information, including recipes.

—Donna Maurer

Quotes:

"Never would it occur to a child that a sheep, a pig, a cow or a chicken was good to eat, while, like Milton's Adam, he would eagerly make a meal off fruits, nuts, thyme, mint, peas and broad beans which penetrate further and stimulate not only the appetite but other vague and deep nostalgias. We are closer to the Vegetable Kingdom than we know; is it not for man alone that mint, thyme, sage, and rosemary exhale crush me and eat me! -- for us that opium poppy, coffee-berry, tea-plant and vine perfect themselves? Their aim is to be absorbed by us, even if it can only be achieved by attaching themselves to roast mutton." - Cyril Connolly

"Most vegetarians I ever see looked enough like their food to be classed as cannibals." - Finley Peter Dunne

"Nothing will benefit human health and increase the chances for survival of life on Earth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian diet" - Albert Einstein

"A man of my spiritual intensity does not eat corpses." - George Bernard Shaw

"It is impossible that had Buonaparte descended from a race of vegetable feeders that he could have had either the inclination or the power to ascend the throne of the Bourbons." - Percy Bysshe Shelley

"One farmer says to me, You cannot live on vegetable food solely, for it furnishes nothing to make bones with; and so he religiously devotes a part of his day to supplying his system with the raw material of bones; walking all the while he talks behind his oxen, which, with vegetable-made bones, jerk him and his lumbering plow along in spite of every obstacle." - Henry David Thoreau

See more famous quotes about Vegetarianism

This article is about human nutrition and diet. For plant-based diets in animals, see herbivory.

Vegetarianism is the practice of following a diet based on plant-based foods including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, with or without dairy products and eggs.^[1] Vegetarians do not eat meat, game, poultry, fish, crustacea, shellfish, or products of animal slaughter such as animal-derived gelatin and rennet.^[1][2][3] A vegan diet is a form of vegetarian diet which excludes all animal products, including dairy products, eggs, and honey. A lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but excludes eggs, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy, and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products.

A semi-vegetarian diet consists largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish and sometimes poultry, as well as dairy products and eggs. A pescetarian diet, for example, includes fish but no meat.^[4] The association of semi-vegetarianism with vegetarianism in common use^[5] has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to note these diets are not vegetarian.^[6]

Vegetarianism may be adopted for ethical, health, environmental, religious, political, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or other reasons.

Contents 1 Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism 1.1 Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism 1.2 Semi-vegetarian diets 2 Etymology 3 History 4 Health benefits and concerns 4.1 Nutrition 4.1.1 Protein 4.1.2 Iron 4.1.3 Vitamin B12 4.1.4 Fatty acids 4.1.5 Calcium 4.1.6 Vitamin D 4.2 Longevity 4.3 Food safety 4.4 Medical use 4.5 Physiology 4.6 Animal-to-human disease transmissions 4.7 Eating disorders 5 Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet 5.1 Childhood IQ and diet choice 5.2 Ethics 5.3 Religion 5.3.1 Hinduism 5.3.2 Jainism 5.3.3 Buddhism 5.3.4 Sikhism 5.3.5 Judaism 5.3.6 Classical Greek Philosophy and Religion 5.3.7 Christianity 5.3.8 Islam 5.3.9 Rastafari 5.4 Environmental 5.5 Labour conditions 5.6 Economical 5.7 Psychological 5.8 Cultural 6 Demographics 6.1 Gender 6.2 Country-specific information 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism

Foods in the main vegetarian diets

Diet name	Meat, poultry, fish	Eggs	Dairy	Honey
Lacto-ovo vegetarianism	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lacto vegetarianism	No	No	Yes	Yes
Ovo vegetarianism	No	Yes	No	Yes
Veganism	No	No	No	No[7][8][9]

Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism

• Fruitarianism is a diet of only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.
• Su vegetarianism (such as in Buddhism), excludes all animal products as well as the fetid vegetables: onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, or shallots.
• Macrobiotic diet is a diet of mostly whole grains and beans. Not all macrobiotics are vegetarians, as some consume fish.
• Raw veganism is a diet of fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables.
• Dietary veganism: whereas vegans do not use animal products of any kind, dietary vegans restrict their veganism to their diet.^[10]

Strict vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing e.g. cheeses that use animal rennet, gelatin (from animal skin, bones, and connective tissue), some sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon. Vegetarians who eat eggs sometimes prefer free-range eggs (as opposed to battery farmed eggs).

Semi-vegetarian diets

Semi-vegetarian diets primarily consist of vegetarian foods, but make exceptions for some non-vegetarian foods. These diets may be followed by those who choose to reduce the amount of animal flesh consumed, or sometimes as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet, and even for environmental reasons such as reducing methane levels (fish and poultry produce less methane than cows and other livestock). These terms are neologisms based on the word "vegetarian". They may be regarded with contention by some strict vegetarians,^[6] as they combine terms for vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets.

Additionally, many individuals describe themselves as simply "vegetarian" while actually practicing a semi-vegetarian diet.^[11]

• Semi-vegetarianism: A diet that excludes certain meats, particularly red meat, but includes others.
• Flexitarianism: A diet that consists primarily of vegetarian food, but includes occasional exceptions.
• Pescetarianism: A diet that is mainly vegetarian but also includes fish.

Etymology

The Vegetarian Society, founded in 1847, claims to have "created the word vegetarian from the Latin 'vegetus' meaning 'lively' (which is how these early vegetarians claimed their diet made them feel) ..."^[12] However, the Oxford English Dictionary and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".^[13]

The Oxford English Dictionary also gives evidence that the word was already in use before the foundation of the Vegetarian Society:

• 1839 - "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble, Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
• 1842 - "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (Healthian, Apr. 34)

but notes that "The general use of the word appears to have been largely due to the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847."

History

Main article: History of vegetarianism

The earliest records of (lacto) ^[14] vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people come from ancient India.^[15] Vegetarianism was also practiced by the ancient Greek civilisation in Southern Italy and in Greece in the 6th century BCE.^[16] In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.^[17] Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.^[18] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.^[19] Vegetarianism re-emerged somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance.^[20] It became a more widespread practice in the 19th and 20th centuries.

In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in England;^[21] Germany, the Netherlands and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns.

Health benefits and concerns

Vegetarianism is considered a healthy, viable diet. The American Dietetic Association and the Dietitians of Canada have found a properly planned vegetarian diet to satisfy the nutritional needs for all stages of life, and large-scale studies have shown vegetarianism to significantly lower risks of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, and other fatal diseases.^[22][23][24] Necessary nutrients, proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and dairy.^[25]

Vegetarian diets can aid in keeping body weight under control^[26][27] and substantially reduce risks of heart disease and osteoporosis.^{[28][28][29][29]} Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with dramatically increased risk of cancers of the lung, oesophagus, liver, and colon.^[30][31] Other studies have shown that there were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer,breast cancer, or prostate cancer, although the sample of vegetarians was small and included ex-smokers who had switched their diet within the last five years.^[32]

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated: "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals."^[24] Vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index, lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less incidence of heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, dementias such as Alzheimer’s Disease and other disorders.^[33]

Nutrition

Main article: Vegetarian nutrition

A fruit and vegetable stall in Barcelona

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.^[34][35]

Protein

Protein intake in vegetarian diets is only slightly lower than in meat diets and can meet daily requirements for any person, including athletes and bodybuilders.^[36] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, have confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.^[37] Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians, the only vegetable sources with significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids are lupin, soy, hempseed, chia seed, amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa. It is not necessary, however, to obtain protein from these sources—the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice and beans, or hummus and whole wheat pita, though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary). A varied intake of such sources can be adequate, a 1994 study found.^[38] Some years later, it became clear that even "combining proteins" is not necessary. As reported by Dr. Weil in 2000 in his print newsletter, and as reiterated in a 2002 post on his website, and again in the 2005 update:

You may have heard that vegetable sources of protein are 'incomplete' and become 'complete' only when correctly combined. Research has discredited that notion so you don't have to worry that you won't get enough usable protein if you don't put together some magical combination of foods at each meal.^[39]

Iron

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.^[40] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.^[35] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians and iron deficiency is thus more common in vegetarian and vegan women and children (adult males are rarely iron deficient), however, iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.^[41][42]

Vitamin B12

Plants are not generally significant sources of Vitamin B12.^[43] However, lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods and dietary supplements.^[44][45] Since the human body preserves B12 and reuses it without destroying the substance, clinical evidence of B12 deficiency is uncommon.^[46][47] The body can preserve stores of the vitamin for up to 30 years without needing its supplies to be replenished.^[43]

The only reliable vegan sources of B12 are foods fortified with B12 (including some soy products and some breakfast cereals) and B12 supplements.^[48][49] The research on vitamin B12 sources has increased in the latest years.^[50]

Fatty acids

Fish is a non-vegetarian source of Omega 3 fatty acids. Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources exist such as soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil and especially hempseed, chia seed, flaxseed, and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, which are found in low levels in eggs and dairy products. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.^[51] Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.^[52] Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).^[53][54]

Calcium

Calcium intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Some impaired bone mineralisation has been found among vegans who do not consume enough leafy greens, which are sources of abundant calcium.^[55] However, this is not found in lacto-ovo vegetarians.^[56] Some sources of calcium include broccoli, cauliflower, beet greens, bok choy, collard greens, kale, watercress, and soy beans. Watercress, and kale are especially high in calcium. ^[57][58] Collard greens are high in calcium, but the calcium is bound to oxalate and therefore it is poorly absorbed. ^[59]

Vitamin D

Vitamin D levels do not appear to be lower in vegetarians (although studies have shown that much of the general population is deficient^[60][61]). Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible UV sun exposure.^[62] Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a good source of Vitamin D^[63] and mushrooms provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup) of vitamin D₂, if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;^[64] for those who do not get adequate sun exposure and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

Longevity

A 1999 metastudy^[22] combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be .82, vegetarians to be .84, occasional meat eaters to be .84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. The study reported the numbers of deaths in each category, and expected error ranges for each ratio, and adjustments made to the data. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts". Out of the major causes of death studied, only one difference in mortality rate was attributed to the difference in diet, as the conclusion states: "vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality from ischemic heart disease than nonvegetarians, but no associations of a vegetarian diet with other major causes of death were established."^[22]

In "Mortality in British vegetarians",^[23] a similar conclusion is drawn: "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish."^[65]

The Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists. This is the only study among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.^[66]

The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating (less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with high meat intake.^[67] The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."

Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a low meat, high plant Mediterranean diet is common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.^[68]

A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma carboxymethyllysine and advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) compared to this group of omnivores.^[69] Carboxymethyllysine is a glycation product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes." "Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure."

Food safety

Libby Sande argued in a blog for USA Today that Vegetarianism reduces E. coli infections,^[70] and in a piece for The New York Times linked E. coli contamination in food to industrial scale meat and dairy farms.^[71] E. coli infections in the US during 2006 were traced to spinach and onions.^{[72][dead link][73]}

Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via fecal-oral transmission.^[74][75][76] Common routes of transmission include unhygienic food preparation^[75] and farm contamination.^[77][78][79] Dairy and beef cattle are primary reservoirs of the E. coli strain O157:H7,^[80] and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it in their feces.^[80] Food products associated with E. coli outbreaks include raw ground beef,^[81] raw seed sprouts or spinach,^[77] raw milk, unpasteurized juice, and foods contaminated by infected food workers via fecal-oral route.^[75] In 2005, some people who had consumed triple-washed, pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E. coli.^[82] In 2007, packaged lettuce salads were recalled after they were found to be contaminated with E. coli.^[83] E. coli outbreaks have been traced to unpasteurised apples,^[84] orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,^[85] and water.^[86]

Salmonella outbreaks have been traced to peanut butter, frozen pot pies & puffed vegetable snacks.^[87] BSE, also known as mad cow disease, is linked by the World Health Organization to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.^[88]

There have been reports of fears of foot-and-mouth disease in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon, mercury in fish, dioxin concentrations in animal products, artificial growth hormones, antibiotics, lead and mercury,^[89] pesticide contamination of vegetables and fruits, banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits.^[90][91][92] In 2005, fears that "bird flu" could be caused by eating chicken were featured in a PETA call for vegetarian diets.^[93]

Medical use

In Western medicine, patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.^[94] Certain alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure.^[95]

Physiology

The mainstream scientific consensus is that humans are physiologically best suited to an omnivore diet. The Vegetarian Resource Group, among others, has concluded that humans are naturally omnivores based on the human ability to digest meat, as well as plant foods,^[96][97] with the correspondent metabolic tendency to an adaptation that makes them need both animal and vegetable nourishment. Other arguments hold that humans are more anatomically similar to herbivores, with long intestinal tracts and blunt teeth, unlike omnivores and carnivores.^{[citation needed]} Nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.^[98][99]

Animal-to-human disease transmissions

The consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.^[100] The connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of salmonella; an estimated one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.^[100] Only recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.^{[100][101][102][103][104][105][106]} In 1975, one study found 75 percent of supermarket samples of cow's milk, and 75 percent of egg samples to contain the leukemia (cancer) virus.^[101] By 1985, nearly 100 percent of the eggs tested, or the hens they came from, had the cancer virus.^[100][101] The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as one of the most hazardous occupations - not for the chickens but for those who raise, slaughter and process them.^[100] 20 percent of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as bovine leukemia virus (BLV).^[100] Studies have increasingly linked BLV with HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus discovered to cause cancer.^[100] Scientists have successfully infected human cells with a bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), the equivalent of the AIDS virus in cows.^[100] It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.^{[100][clarification needed]}

The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission. Transition of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,^[107] transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.^{[108][109][110][111]} The first documented case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of H5N1 influenza were diagnosed, in which six people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.^[107]

Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear.^[112] The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for measles and pertussis, although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin.^[113]

According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" the AIDS virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering an animal.^[114]

Historian Norman Cantor, in In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It made (2001), suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague.

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."^[115] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.^{[116][117][118]}

Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet

Childhood IQ and diet choice

A study published in the British Medical Journal in 2007 compared children's IQ at age 10 with their having a vegetarian diet at age 30. The report did not provide information on whether or not the children were already vegetarian at the time when their IQ measurement was taken. It also noted that there was no difference in IQ among those vegetarians who ate only plants, and those who also ate chicken and fish.^[119] The BBC summarised part of the results of the study, stating "Men who were vegetarian had an IQ score of 106, compared with 101 for non-vegetarians; while female vegetarians averaged 104, compared with 99 for non-vegetarians."^[120] The report concluded that “Higher scores for IQ in childhood are associated with an increased likelihood of being a vegetarian as an adult.”^[119] Lead researcher Catharine Gale noted that this link may not be causal, but “may be merely an example of many other lifestyle preferences that might be expected to vary with intelligence.”^[120]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics of vegetarianism

Various ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism.

Religion

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

Indian cuisine offers a wide range of vegetarian delicacies because Hinduism, practiced by majority of India's populace, encourages vegetarian diet. Shown here is a vegetarian thali.

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism teach vegetarianism as moral conduct. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement and the Hare Krishnas. Sikhism^{[121][122][123]} does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.^[124]

Hinduism

Main articles: Vegetarianism in Hinduism and Hindu dietary law

Most major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;^[125] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad;^[126] and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.

However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians.

Jainism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

Followers of Jainism are most commonly lacto-vegetarians. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold vegetarianism as the ideal diet in a similar fashion to Hindu traditions but with emphasis on their principle of non-violence (ahimsa). This is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.^[127][128] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.^[129] Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.^[130]

Buddhism

A vegetarian dinner at a Japanese Buddhist temple

Main article: Vegetarianism in Buddhism

Theravadins in general eat meat. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. However, this does not include eating meat which was given in alm or commercially purchased. In Theravada cannon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them to eat meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh^[131]) nor did he make any rule or prohibition in his religion on any thing.

In Mahayana Buddhism, there are several Sanskrit texts where the Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism select what sutra to follow and some branch of Mahayana Buddhism including majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhism do eat meat while most of Chinese Buddhism do not eat meat.

Sikhism

Main article: Vegetarianism in Sikhism

Followers of Sikhism do not have a preference for meat or vegetarian consumption.^{[132][133][134][135]} There are two views on initiated or "Amritdhari Sikhs" and meat consumption. "Amritdhari" Sikhs (i.e. those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct^[136]) can eat meat (provided it is not Kutha meat)."Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (eg Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari,^[137] Rarionwalay,^[138] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs.^[139]

In the case of meat, the Sikh Gurus have indicated their preference for a simple diet,^[140] which could include meat or be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanak said that over consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.^[141] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or kosher (Kutha, any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).^[132]

Judaism

A number of medieval scholars of Jewish religion (e.g. Joseph Albo) regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal, not just because of a concern for the welfare of animals, but because the slaughter of animals might cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative character traits. Therefore, their concern was with regard to possible harmful effects upon human character rather than with animal welfare. Indeed, Rabbi Joseph Albo maintains that renunciation of the consumption of meat for reasons of concern for animal welfare is not only morally erroneous but even repugnant.^[142]

One modern-day scholar who is often cited as in favour of vegetarianism is the late Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the Chief Rabbi of Pre-State Israel. It is indeed the case that in his writings, Rabbi Kook speaks of vegetarianism as an ideal, and points to the fact that Adam did not partake of the flesh of animals. In context, however, Rabbi Kook makes those comments in his portrayal of the eschatological (messianic) era.

According to some Kabbalists, only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and "divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.^[143]

Having ties with both ancient Judaism and Christianity, members of the ancient Essene religious group practiced strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of Ahimsa or "harmlessness".^[144]

Translation of the Torah's Ten Commandments state "thou shalt not murder."^[145][146] Many argue that this can also be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor humans, or at least "that one shall not kill unnecessarily," in the same manner that onerous restrictions on slavery in the Bible have been interpreted by modern theologians as to suggest banning the practice.^[147]

While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, the choice must be made in regard to the ethics and ideals of Judaism"The Vegetarian Mitzvah". http://www.brook.com/jveg. 

Classical Greek Philosophy and Religion

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Ancient/Classical Greek Philosophy has a long tradition of vegetarianism. Orpheus was a vegetarian, and his followers were expected to be. Pythagoras was reportedly Orphic (and studied at Mt. Carmel, where some historians say there was a vegetarian community) a vegan, and his followers were expected to be. Socrates was reportedly Pythagorean, and in his dialogue of what people in a Republic, or at least Philosopher-rulers, should eat, recorded by Plato, he only described vegetarian food (he specifically said that if meat-eating was allowed, then society would require more doctors.)

Christianity

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

Jesus ordered to catch and prepared meal with fish^[148] and he famously fed 5000 people with five loaves of bread and two fish.^[149]

Several Apostles that lived by most of the Nazarite oath (as Jesus did somewhat) were vegetarian.^{[citation needed]} While vegetarianism is not a common practice (except by traditional monastics, and by other Orthodox at least during 'fast' times^{[citation needed]}) in current Christian culture, the concept and practice have scriptural and historical support. According to the Bible, in the beginning, humans and animals were vegetarian.(Genesis 1:29–30) Immediately after the Flood, God permitted the eating of meat. (Genesis 9:3)

There is also a strong association between the Quaker tradition within Christianity and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."^[150]

Islam

See also: Islam and animals

Islam allows the consumption of meat, if the meat is "halal". Many Muslims who normally eat meat will select vegetarian options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, it is not permissible to declare that something halâl is harâm. ^[151] Therefore, the choice to live vegetarian is entirely a matter of personal preference rather than ethical choice.

Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and poet Râbi‘ah al-‘Adawîyah of Basrah, who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.^[152]

Muslims have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian can be controversial. Although the number of Muslim vegetarians today is increasing, individual adherents tend to keep quiet about it.^[153]

In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.^[154]

Rastafari

Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafarian and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only Ital or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long and skillfully laid down tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.^[155] Most Rastafarians are vegetarian. Utensils made from natural material such as stone or earthenware are preferred.

Environmental

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the belief that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contributes on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."^[156]

In July 2009 Nike and Timberland stopped buying leather from deforested Amazon ^[157] a few weeks after Greenpeace report demonstrated the destruction caused by Amazon cattle ranchers. According to Arnold Newman every hamburger sold results in destruction of 6.25m2 of rain forest.^[158]

In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases and is responsible for 18 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all of the world's transportation (including all cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and planes) emits 13.5 percent of the CO₂. Animal farming produces 65 percent of human-related nitrous oxide and 37 percent of all human-induced methane. Methane has about 21 times more Global Warming Potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO2.^[159]

Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops.^[160] According to the USDA, growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80 percent of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90 percent of the soy crop, 80 percent of the corn crop, and a total of 70 percent of its grain.^[161]

When tracking food animal production from the feed trough to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 up to 54:1 energy input to protein output ratio. This firstly because the feed first needs to be grown before it is eaten by the cattle, and secondly because warm-blooded vertebrates need to use a lot of calories just to stay warm (unlike plants or insects).^[162] An index which can be used as a measure is the efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body substance, which indicates, for example, that only 10% is converted to body substance by beef cattle, versus 19–31% by silkworms and 44% by German cockroaches.^[162] Ecology professor David Pimentel has claimed, "If all the grain currently fed to livestock in the United States were consumed directly by people, the number of people who could be fed would be nearly 800 million."^[163] To produce animal based food seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. However, this would not apply to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. Nor would it apply to cultivation of insects for food, which may be more environmentally sustainable than eating food coming from cattle farming.^[162] Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be also more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.^[164]

According to the theory of trophic dynamics, it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat production as it would to feed the same number of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70 percent of all the wheat, corn, and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals.^[165] This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.^[166] Rearing a relatively small number grazing animals is often beneficial, as observed by the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University, which reports, "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".^[167]

“	The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions. So I want to highlight the fact that among options for mitigating climate change, changing diets is something one should consider.	”
	— Rajendra Pachauri,[168] Chairman, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

In May 2009, Ghent was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.^[169]

Labour conditions

Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.^[170] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.^{[171][172][173][174]} However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.^[175] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.^[176] In fact, according to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.^[177]

Economical

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the WorldWatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."^[178]

Psychological

The "Appeal to nature" logical fallacy invites one to believe that something is good or right because it is natural.^[179]

A metaphor has been presented by Douglas Dunn: that if one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a cat were presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would be the opposite.^[180] Omnivorous and comparatively human-like species such as chimpanzees' offspring may not instinctively kill a prey animal, such as a Senegal Bushbaby, when presented with one and a piece of fruit either.^[181] In a similar assertion, vegetarian Scott Adams wrote humorously: "I point out that a live cow makes a lion salivate, whereas a human just wants to say 'moo' and see if the cow responds."^[182]

This same non-predatory inter-species interaction can be seen in adult chimpanzees, which have been seen toying with other animals without regarding them as prey and even occasionally socialising with other species.^[183]

Cultural

Taiwanese Buddhist cuisine

People may choose vegetarianism because they were raised in a vegetarian household or because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend.

Limited vegetarianism has appeal for some young people in Western societies. A 2007 University of Michigan Medical School experiment on the diffusion of memes included an attempt to encourage limited vegetarianism.

Demographics

Gender

A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68 percent are female while only 32 percent are male."^[184]

At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."^[185] Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke".^[185]

There is speculation that diets high in soy, due to high isoflavone content, can have a feminising effect on human infants due to their action as phytoestrogens. Proponents of this theory claim that diets high in isoflavones promote earlier onset of female puberty and delayed male puberty.^[186] However, a 2001 study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania found no significant differences in the later onset of puberty between infants raised on soy-based formula and cow milk formula.^[187]

Country-specific information

Main article: Vegetarianism in specific countries

Labeling used in India to distinguish vegetarian products (left) from non-vegetarian ones (right).

Vegetarianism is viewed in different ways around the world. In some areas there is cultural and even legal support, but in others the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon. In many countries food labelling is in place that makes it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.

In India, not only is there food labelling, but many restaurants are marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or "Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegetarian in India are usually Lacto-vegetarians, and therefore, to cater for this market, the majority of vegetarian restaurants in India do serve dairy products while eschewing egg products. Most Western vegetarian restaurants, in comparison, do serve eggs and egg-based products.

See also

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Vegetarianism

• Fruitarian
• List of diets
• List of vegetarians
• Meat-free day
• Veganarchism
• Vegetarian cuisine
• Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
• Vegetarian or vegan cat food

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "The Vegetarian Society - Definitions Information Sheet". The Vegetarian Society. http://www.vegsoc.org/info/definitions.html. Retrieved 2008-09-03. 
2. ^ "Vegetarian". Compact Oxford English Dictionary. http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/vegetarian?. Retrieved 2008-06-15. "a person who does not eat meat for moral, religious, or health reasons. ['meat' is defined as 'the flesh of an animal as food']" 
3. ^ Briggs, Asa (1989) The Longman Encyclopedia, Longman, p. 1109
4. ^ Merriam-Webster defines "Pescetarian" as one whose diet includes fish but no meat. "Pescetarian". Merriam-Webster. http://www.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=pescetarian. Retrieved 2008-08-22. 
5. ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 2 (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2007. p. 3506.  defines "vegetarian" (noun) as "A person who on principle abstains from animal food; esp. one who avoids meat but will consume dairy produce and eggs and sometimes also fish (cf. VEGAN noun)."
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16. ^ Spencer p. 33–68.
17. ^ Indian emperor Ashoka has asserted protection to fauna , from his edicts we could understand, i.e. "Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected -- parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks, //nandimukhas, gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another." —Edict of Ashokaon Fifth Pillar Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 13–46.
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126. ^ Mahabharata 12.257 (note that Mahabharata 12.257 is 12.265 according to another count); Bhagavad Gita 9.26; Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.
127. ^ "Vegetarianism Good For The Self And Good For The Environment" at The Jain Study Circle
128. ^ "Spiritual Traditions and Vegetarianism"^{[dead link]} at the Vegetarian Society of Colorado website.
129. ^ Matthews, Warren: World Religions, 4th edition, Belmont: Thomson/Wadsworth 2004, p. 180. ISBN 0-534-52762-0
130. ^ "Jainism" at JainUniversity.org
131. ^ Mahavagga Pali - Bhesajjakkhandhaka - Vinaya Pitaka
132. ^ ^{a b} "Misconceptions About Eating Meat - Comments of Sikh Scholars," at The Sikhism Home Page
133. ^ Sikhs and Sikhism by I.J. Singh, Manohar, Delhi ISBN 9788173040580 Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism. Certainly Sikhs do not think that a vegetarian's achievements in spirituality are easier or higher. It is surprising to see that vegetarianism is such an important facet of Hindu practice in light of the fact that animal sacrifice was a significant and much valued Hindu Vedic ritual for ages. Guru Nanak in his writings clearly rejected both sides of the arguments - on the virtues of vegetarianism or meat eating - as banal and so much nonsense, nor did he accept the idea that a cow was somehow more sacred than a horse or a chicken. He also refused to be drawn into a contention on the differences between flesh and greens, for instance. History tells us that to impart this message, Nanak cooked meat at an important Hindu festival in Kurukshetra. Having cooked it he certainly did not waste it, but probably served it to his followers and ate himself. History is quite clear that Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were accomplished and avid hunters. The game was cooked and put to good use, to throw it away would have been an awful waste.
134. ^ Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study by Surindar Singh Kohli, Singh Bros. Amritsar ISBN :8172050607 The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected.
135. ^ A History of the Sikh People by Dr. Gopal Singh, World Sikh University Press, Delhi ISBN 9788170231394 However, it is strange that now-a-days in the Community-Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru's Kitchen (or, Guru-ka-langar) meat-dishes are not served at all. May be, it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive, or not easy to keep for long. Or, perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off.
136. ^ "Sikh Reht Maryada, The Definition of Sikh, Sikh Conduct & Conventions, Sikh Religion Living, India". www.sgpc.net. http://www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html. Retrieved 2009-08-29. 
137. ^ Vegetarianism and Meat-Eating in 8 Religions^{[dead link]} April/May/June, 2007 Hinduism Today
138. ^ Philosophy of Sikhism by Gyani Sher Singh (Ph.D), Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. Amritsar As a true Vaisnavite Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much, as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. pg 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions, Kabir held the doctrine of Ahinsa or the non-destruction of life, which extended even to that of flowers. The Sikh Gurus, on the contrary, allowed and even encouraged, the use of animal flesh as food. Nanak has exposed this Ahinsa superstition in Asa Ki War (G.G.S. pg 472) and Malar Ke War (G.G.S. pg. 1288)
139. ^ "Langar," at http://www.sikhwomen.com
140. ^ Singh, Prithi Pal (2006). "3 Guru Amar Das". The History of Sikh Gurus. New Delhi: Lotus Press. p. 38. ISBN 8183820751. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EhGkVkhUuqoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+History+of+Sikh+Gurus+By+Prithi+Pal+Singh#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
141. ^ "The Sikhism Home Page". Sikhs.org. http://www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
142. ^ "J. David Bleich - Contemporary Halakhic Problems". Innernet.org.il. http://www.innernet.org.il/article.php?aid=107.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
143. ^ "Judaism & Vegetarianism". Jewishveg.com. http://www.jewishveg.com/torah.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
144. ^ ""They Shall Not Hurt Or Destroy" and the Essenes". All-creatures.org. http://www.all-creatures.org/murti/tsnhod-03.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
145. ^ "Judaism and Vegetarianism: Schwartz Collection - Thou Shalt Not "Kill" or "Murder"?". Jewishveg.com. http://www.jewishveg.com/schwartz/killormurder.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
146. ^ "Exodus 20 / Hebrew - English Bible / Mechon-Mamre". Mechon-mamre.org. http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
147. ^ Jewish philosophy of vegetarianism article by Philip L. Pick
148. ^ John 21 (New International Version) [2]
149. ^ Matthew 14:13-21 (New International Version)[3]
150. ^ "The Great War and the Interwar Period". ivu.org. http://www.ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14. 
151. ^ Muslims can’t be vegetarian? Retrieved 5/16/2008
152. ^ Vegetarian quotations from Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Retrieved 5/16/2008
153. ^ Muslims can’t be vegetarian? Retrieved 5/16/2008
154. ^ "IVU News - Islam and Vegetarianism". Ivu.org. http://www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
155. ^ Osborne, L (1980), The Rasta Cookbook, 3rd Ed. Mac Donald, London.
156. ^ "Livestock's long shadow - Environmental issues and options". Fao.org. http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
157. ^ "Amazon rain forest". Thedailygreen.com. 2009-07-29. http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/amazon-rain-forest-4702902#ixzz0Pk0D3YWk. Retrieved 2009-10-04. 
158. ^ "ei=3ZKbSoyJOIP6_AbH17TGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8#v=onepage&q=&f=false Hamburger per rain forest". Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0s3X_vh1_EC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=one+hamburger+is+50+rain+forrest&source=bl&ots=8mCZP3Th56&sig=jldRdprDKsYuMbjHPQ5aQ4vZ4W4&hl=en&. Retrieved 2009-10-04. 
159. ^ "Greenhouse gas neutral". Yogaindailylife.org.au. http://www.yogaindailylife.org.au/Articles/Environment/Going-Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04. 
160. ^ Kirby, Alex for BBC NEWS 2004 Hungry world 'must eat less meat' http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3559542.stm
161. ^ Vesterby, Marlow and Krupa, Kenneth S. 2001 Major Uses of Land in the United States, 1997 Statistical Bulletin No. (SB973) September 2001 http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/sb973/sb973.pdfPDF (333 KB)
162. ^ ^{a b c} Peterson, Mark (2008-05-29). "Eating Bugs". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1810336,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-14. 
163. ^ Cornell Science News, Aug. 7, 1997 http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Aug97/livestock.hrs.html
164. ^ Olsson, Anna (2008-07-08). "Comment: Lab-grown meat could ease food shortage". New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m. Retrieved 2008-11-17. 
165. ^ Ed Ayres, "Will We Still Eat Meat?" Time, 8 Nov. 1999
166. ^ Eco-Eating: Eating as if the Earth Matters (it does!) http://www.brook.com/veg/
167. ^ Why eating less meat could cut global warming Guardian
168. ^ "Shun meat, says UN climate chief", BBC, September 7, 2008
169. ^ "Belgian city plans 'veggie' days", Chris Mason, BBC, May 12, 2009
170. ^ "Killing for a Living: How the Meat Industry Exploits Workers". http://www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp. Retrieved 2009-07-16. 
171. ^ "Worker Health and Safety in the Meat and Poultry Industry". Hrw.org. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
172. ^ "Food Safety, the Slaughterhouse, and Rights". Ncrlc.com. 2004-03-30. http://www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
173. ^ http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/contentPages/docs/meatCultureLiteratureReviewV81.pdfPDF (618 KB)—Positive Safety Culture The key to a safer meat industry
174. ^ "Factory Farming—Making People Sick". Hfa.org. http://www.hfa.org/factory/. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
175. ^ Working conditions in agriculture International Labour Organization
176. ^ Working conditions in agriculture Berne Declaration
177. ^ World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Published by World Bank Publications pg 207
178. ^ Worldwatch Institute, News July 2, 1998, United States Leads World Meat Stampede https://www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02
179. ^ Salt, Henry Stephens (1906). The logic of vegetarianism: essays and dialogues (2, revised ed.). G. Bell and sons. p. 24. http://books.google.com/books?id=OnoPAAAAYAAJ. 
180. ^ Dunn, Douglas. 1999 "Eating Without Killing: Vegetarian Health without animal cruelty" http://www.wordwiz72.com/veg.html
181. ^ "News Service: Iowa State University". Iastate.edu. http://www.iastate.edu/~nscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
182. ^ "Favorite Scott Adams Quotes". http://nickelkid.net/quotes/dilbert.html. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
183. ^ "Chimpanzees general information". Jgiuganda.org. http://www.jgiuganda.org/chimps.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
184. ^ "The gender gap: if you're a vegetarian, odds are you're a woman. Why?". Vegetarian Times. 2005-02-01. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0820/is_n210/ai_16019829. Retrieved 2007-10-27. 
185. ^ ^{a b} "'More girl babies' for vegetarians". BBC News. 2000-08-07. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/869696.stm. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
186. ^ "sexual development damage due to soya". Westonaprice.org. http://www.westonaprice.org/children/testimony040303.html. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 
187. ^ University of Pennsylvania, Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics; Strom BL, Schinnar R, Ziegler EE, Barnhart KT, Sammel MD, Macones GA, Stallings VA, Drulis JM, Nelson SE, Hanson SA. (2001-08-15). Exposure to soy-based formula in infancy and endocrinological and reproductive outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of the American Medical Association. pp. 807–814. 11497534. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/286/7/807. Retrieved 2008-07-11. 

External links

• Vegetarian and Vegan Information
• Resources for Vegetarian
• Resources/Support for Vegetarians
• Vegetarian Restaurant Wiki
• The Ethical Vegetarian
• Shattering The Meat Myth: Humans Are Natural Vegetarians by Kathy Feston, The Huffington Post, June 11 2009
• Eco-Eating: Eating as if the Earth Matters

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