Why were the Romans a more effective fighting force than the armies of their enemies?

Answer 1

The Roman army was an effective fighting force well before the later years of the Republic. Rome already became the dominant power in Italy in the Early Republic (509 BC to the beginning of the First Punic War, 264 BC) by winning the Three Samnite Wars (343-341 BC, 326-304 BC and 298-290 BC) and by establishing either voluntary or forced alliances with the peoples of central and southern Italy in which allies had to supply soldiers who fought in auxiliary troops which supported the Roman legions at their own expense. Military efficiency was a key element in Rome winning the Three Samnite Wars and establishing the military dominance which played a big part in the development of Rome's control over central and southern Italy.

The Italic allies provided 60% of the pool of military manpower available to Rome. This was the largest pool in the Mediterranean and was an important element of Rome's military prowess. It was a key factor which enabled Rome to repel the attempted invasions of Italy by Pyrrhus (the king of the Greek kingdom of Epirus) in the Pyrrhic war (275-270 BC) and by Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). These invaders could not match Rome's military manpower. The latter war was the biggest in the history of the Republic and winning it was its greatest achievement. With the defeat of the Carthaginians and the annexation of mainland Greece in 146 BC, Rome established herself as the dominant military power during the Mediterranean in the Mid-Republic.

Behind the efficiency of the Roman army there was the efficiency of the Roman state which developed the capability of deploying several legions (army corps) on several fronts at the same time in the 5th century BC. This capability was crucial for the success of Rome's expansion into central and southern Italy as on several occasion she rose to the challenge of having to fight both to her south and her north at the same time. Flexibility was another factor. During the second Samnite War, Rome switched from the military formation of the phalanx to the Samnite formation of the maniples. This was because the latter was more flexible and better suited to mountain warfare. The Samnites lived on the Apennine Mountains. Strong discipline, good military strategy and tactics and the sheer determination with which the Romans fought their wars were other factors.

What happened in the Late Republic (133 BC to 30 BC) were the Marian reforms of the army in 107 BC. Previously the Roman army was a citizen militia which recruited soldiers only for the military campaigning season (March to October). The soldiers were farmers who could afford to pay for their military equipment. The propertyless were exempt because they could not afford this. The reforms made joining the army voluntary and made it accessible to the growing masses of the landless poor by making the state pay for the military equipment (swords, armour and helmets). It also established a military career of 16 years (later it was extended to 20 and 25 years) and provided for a grant of a sizeable lump sum of money (numnaria missio) or a plot of land to farm (agrarian missio) on discharge. The poor flocked to the army because it provided a career, a pay and a pension. These reforms were a response to a growing shortage of soldiers to Rome's gowning military commitments.

Over time, The Marian reforms led to the development of a professional standing army which was probably established during the reign of Augustus (in the Early Imperial period). Prior to this, it increased the number of people available for the army, but it seems that it was not a standing army yet. It is not clear whether the reforms made the army more efficient during the Late Republic as well as resolving the problem of recruitment shortages. They did cause problems which contributed to the civil wars which tore the Republic part. They made the soldiers loyal to their military commanders. Already before the civil wars there were instances of commanders using the threat of military violence to obtain what they wanted from the state. During the civil wars there were commanders in the opposing factions who recruited soldiers and even entire legions themselves for their fights and might even pay for them privately.

Answer 2

The Roman army was highly trained and disciplined and well equipped. It used military tactics and formations which were advanced for the time. It was well organised, with the capacity of deploying several legions on several fronts. From the 1st century BC onward it was a standing professional army. The forces of many of the peoples Rome fought against, like the Celtic and Germanic peoples, instead, were more like warrior bands which did not have the same training and discipline as the Roman army. On many occasions this was one of the decisive factors. It has to be noted that on some occasions the Romans struggled to defeat their enemies and were caught in long drawn out fights (like the Third Samnite War, which lasted 23 years, Cantabrian Wars, which lasted ten years and the Great Illyrian Rebellion, which lasted four years). The Romans won through perseverance, tenacity and better organisation. The peoples the Roman fought were often tribes or federations of tribes or kingdoms which were inferior in terms of resources. The Romans also did experience heavy defeats, even though these were not common. Strength in numbers was another factor. With the creation of alliances with other peoples in Italy in the third century BC, Rome had what might have been the largest pool of military manpower in the Mediterranean. Strength in numbers was one of the key factors which enabled Rome to fend off Hannibal's invasion of Italy. Later the Roman army had 300,000 soldiers, which was a massive number for the times.

The military strength of the Sassanian Empire (the fourth if the four Persian pre-Islamic empires) was a match for the Roman army. The two sides fought many wars and invaded each other's territories for several centuries. Neither made any significant long term gains. In the end they made a peace treaty in which Rome gave up much of Armenia, which was a Roman client state.

Answer 3

The Roman army was more effective during the later part of the republic due to several factors such as being open to all citizens and not just the wealthy who only used the military to advance themselves politically. The lower classed citizens found a "home" in the army with steady pay and a retirement bonus. Many of them reenlisted when their term was up. The army, during this time, also was more professional with longer enlistment times. This steady military force which usually trained daily, kept its fighting skills honed. Previously, at the beginning of the republic, the army would disband after the campaigning season and would have to be retrained all over again in the following spring.