Shortening sounds better than fat fat is from animals shortening is from vegetables as corn. If fat melted we would all be standing in a puddle
In cakes: Increase the amount called for by 15% and use vegetable shortening or non-dairy margarine.
Substitutes for shortening are butter and margarine in sticks. Use the same amount as called for in your recipe. Keep in mind, plain shortening will NOT be as flavorful as butter or margarine. Do not use soft margarine in a tub as it contains too much water.
Butter or margarine can be used instead, adding a couple of extra tablespoons per cup of shortening called for in a recipe.
To substitute cocoa powder for baking chocolate in a recipe, use 3 tablespoons of cocoa powder plus 1 tablespoon of butter, oil, or shortening for every ounce of baking chocolate called for. Mix the cocoa powder with the fat to create a paste before adding it to the recipe.
Whether you should substitute margarine for shortening depends on whether you are cooking or baking. Baking is far more precise than cooking, it requires far more precise ratios of protein, fat, liquid, leavening agents, etc. and such you have to be particularly careful about substitutions. Margarine has a far lower fat percentage (80%) than shortening (100%), so on that basis alone, its probably not a good idea to substitute one for the other when baking, not if you don't have much of an understanding of the baking process and a willingness to experiment and adjust a recipe repeatedly until you get the optimal results. With cooking, its not so critical, you can easily substitute one kind of fat for another, without fearing the potential results.
To substitute cocoa powder for baking chocolate in a recipe, use 3 tablespoons of cocoa powder plus 1 tablespoon of butter, oil, or shortening for every ounce of baking chocolate called for in the recipe. Mix the cocoa powder with the fat until smooth before adding it to the recipe.
You can use a tool called a "pastry blender" or "shortening cutter". Do a Google Image search for these and you will see what they look like. They are cheap and easy to use. Usually you use cold flour and cold shortening.
An excessive amount of baking soda would be double the amount called for in the recipe. This can impart a soda-ish taste to the muffins, cookies, whatever you are baking, but will not usually ruin them.
The noun for muscle shortening is called contraction.
Effacement.
Called a pastry cutter. Usually has 3 or 4 slightly curved blades attached to a handle.
Atrophy