Civil Engineering

(a) Ductile materials: For ductile material such as mild steel, the load Vs compression diagram would be as follows

(1) The ductile materials such as steel, Aluminum, and copper have stress - strain diagrams similar to ones which we have for tensile test, there would be an elastic range which is then followed by a plastic region.

(2) The ductile materials (steel, Aluminum, copper) proportional limits in compression test are very much close to those in tension.

(3) In tension test, a specimen is being stretched, necking may occur, and ultimately fracture fakes place. On the other hand when a small specimen of the ductile material is compressed, it begins to bulge on sides and becomes barrel shaped as shown in the figure above. With increasing load, the specimen is flattened out, thus offering increased resistance to further shortening ( which means that the stress - strains curve goes upward ) this effect is indicated in the diagram.

Brittle materials ( in compression test )

Brittle materials in compression typically have an initial linear region followed by a region in which the shortening increases at a higher rate than does the load. Thus, the compression stress - strain diagram has a shape that is similar to the shape of the tensile diagram.

However, brittle materials usually reach much higher ultimate stresses in compression than in tension.

For cast iron, the shape may be like this

Brittle materials in compression behave elastically up to certain load, and then fail suddenly by splitting or by craking in the way as shown in figure. The brittle fracture is performed by separation and is not accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation.

Aggregate is the granular material used in asphalt concrete mixtures which make up 90-95 percent of the mixture weight and provides most of the load bearing characteristics of the mix. Therefore, the quality and physical properties of the aggregates are critical to the pavement performance. The following is recommended:

• (1) Aggregates should be nonplastic. The presence of clay fines in an asphalt mix can result in problems with volume swell and adhesion of asphalt to the rock contributing to stripping problems. The minus #4 sieve material should have a minimum sand equivalent value of 45 using the test method described in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specification (AASHTO T-176).
• (2) A limit should be placed on the amounts of deleterious materials permitted in the aggregates. Specifications should limit clay lumps and friable particles to a maximum of one percent.
• (3) Durability or weathering resistance should be determined by sulfate soundness testing. Specifications should require a sodium or magnesium sulfate test using the limits described in the AASHTO specification M-29.
• (4) Aggregate resistance to abrasion should be determined. Specifications should require a Los Angeles abrasion loss of 45 percent or less (AASHTO T-96).
• (5) Friction between aggregate particles is dependent on aggregate surface roughness and area of contact. As surface friction increases, so does resistance of the mix to deformation. Specifications should require at least 60 percent of the plus #4 sieve material to have at least two mechanically induced fractured faces.
• (6) The quality of natural sand varies considerably from one location to another. Since most natural sands are rounded and often contain a high percentage of undesirable materials, the amount of natural sand as a general rule should be limited to 15 to 20 percent for high volume pavements and 20 to 25 percent for medium and low volume pavements. These percentages may increase or decrease depending on quality of the natural sand and the types of traffic to which the pavement will be subjected.
• (7) For adequate control, aggregate gradations should be specified from the maximum particle size to the #200 sieve so each successive sieve opening is about 1/2 the previous sieve opening (for example, 1 inch, 1/2 inch, #4, #8, #16, #30, #50, #100, #200). The only accurate method to determine the amount of minus #200 sieve material is to perform a wash gradation in accordance with AASHTO T-27 and AASHTO T-11.
• (8) The ratio of dust (minus #200 sieve material) to asphalt cement, by mass, is critical. Asphalt concrete mixes should require a maximum dust asphalt ratio of 1.2 and a minimum of 0.6.
• (9) A tool which is very useful in evaluating aggregate gradations is the 0.45 power gradation chart. All mixes should be plotted on these charts as part of the mix design process (Attachment 1).

• (10) An aggregate's specific gravity and absorption characteristics are extremely important in proportioning and controlling the mixture. It is recommended that AASHTO T-209 be used to determine the maximum specific gravity of asphalt concrete mixes. States not using AASHTO T-209 should be aware of the difficulty of determining the theoretical maximum density using individual ingredient specific gravities and their percentages in the mixture. These difficulties will result in inaccuracies in determining the specific gravity of the mixture. These inaccuracies will carry through to the calculation of the densities in the compacted mat and may result in improperly compacted pavements. It is also necessary to determine the bulk dry specific gravity of the aggregate in order to determine the voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA).

  The target value for VMA should be obtained through the proper distribution of aggregate gradation to provide adequate asphalt film thickness on each particle and accommodate the design air void system. In addition, tolerance used in construction quality control should be such that the mix designed is actually produced in the field.