Nuclear Reactors

Shielding is the use of materials to absorb free or loose radiation, and prevent it from leaving the reactor; this would be a hazard to workers otherwise. The standard materials are concrete and lead, for their ease of use and installment, low cost and high effectiveness.

The sun's nuclear reactions are fusion reactions at extremely high temperatures and pressures, while the nuclear reactor's nuclear reactions are fission reactions at typical temperatures and pressures for earth.

The most common moderator used in nuclear reactors is water, particularly light water (H2O). Water slows down the fast neutrons produced during fission reactions, allowing them to more easily induce further fission events.

You can see a list of nuclear plants in New York state in the link below

The lifespan of a nuclear reactor can vary depending on factors such as maintenance, regulatory approvals, and upgrades. Typically, commercial nuclear reactors are designed to operate for 40-60 years, with some being granted license extensions to continue operating beyond their initial design life. After this period, decisions must be made about either decommissioning the reactor or investing in further upgrades to extend its operation.

The only one that has ever exploded to my knowledge was at Chernobyl in 1986, and this was due to a steam pressure surge during an experimental procedure that was badly planned and carried out. This type of reactor was unique to the Soviet bloc countries and is no longer built, though I think some may still be in operation.

Nuclear reactors produce exactly one additional fission for each fission reaction while nuclear bombs don't

Nuclear bombs are runaway fission reactions and reactors aren't

(APEX)

Control rods, such as boron or cadmium, are used in nuclear reactors to absorb neutrons and regulate the nuclear fission process. By adjusting the position of these control rods, the rate of reactions can be controlled to maintain the desired power levels within the reactor.

1. Purpose: Nuclear reactors are designed to produce electricity through controlled nuclear fission, while nuclear bombs are designed to release a large amount of energy in an uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction.
2. Control: Nuclear reactors have various safety features and control mechanisms to regulate the nuclear fission process, while nuclear bombs have no such controls and are designed for maximum energy release.
3. Fuel Enrichment: Nuclear reactors typically use low-enriched uranium or plutonium as fuel, while nuclear bombs require highly enriched uranium or plutonium to achieve a rapid, explosive chain reaction.

The blue glow around the core of a nuclear reactor is called Cherenkov radiation. It occurs when high-energy charged particles, such as electrons, pass through a medium like water at a speed faster than the speed of light in that medium, creating a visible blue glow.

There are two radioisotopes that serve as fuel for a nuclear reactor. The first is uranium-235, which is a constituent of natural uranium. U-235 is a "fissile" isotope -- i.e., the one that splits when it absorbs a neutron of a certain energy. When a reactor starts up with a fresh load of fuel, all of the early activity involves U-235.

This splitting, or fissioning, of U-235 atoms releases energy in the form of heat. The production of heat is the whole purpose of certain types of nuclear reactors. This heat converts water into steam to turn a turbine generator and make electricity.

Fission also releases neutrons. These neutrons sometimes are absorbed into another uranium isotope, uranium-238, another constituent of natural uranium which is also present in nuclear fuel. When U-238 absorbs a neutron, it eventually becomes plutonium-239. Pu-239 is another fissile isotope, i.e., it also fissions when struck by a neutron of a certain energy.

So the two isotopes that are used as fuel for a nuclear reactor are uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The former gets the reactor going; the latter is made inside the reactor.

Some nuclear reactors are designed solely to produce neutrons. These are research reactors. Neutron interactions with other materials are of great interest to a great many scientists and engineers.

Small reactors for research, teaching, or radio-isotope production are usually open pool type reactors, with no electric output. You can read about these in the link below. The smaller power reactors are those built into submarines and other naval ships, these are small versions of PWR. No small reactors of this type are built for use in civilian plants as far as I know, but it would be possible to do so for an isolated community without a connection to the national grid system. The difficulty would be in licensing and ensuring suitable trained operating staff in such a location.

Neutron absorption in a nuclear reactor can help control the rate of fission reactions by absorbing excess neutrons to prevent them from causing further reactions. This process helps regulate the reactor's power output and overall stability. Additionally, some materials used for neutron absorption, like control rods, can also be used to shut down the reactor in emergency situations.

The fuel in a nuclear reactor is located in the fuel rods, which are typically made of materials such as enriched uranium or plutonium. These fuel rods are where the nuclear fission reaction takes place, producing heat that is used to generate electricity.

The Purity && The Shape

AND size density

Typically, the reactors in nuclear power plants are lined with zirconium alloys, such as Zircaloy, due to their high corrosion resistance and low neutron absorption properties. This lining helps to contain and protect the nuclear fuel rods within the reactor core.

1. very low power experimental reactors need no cooling system (e.g. CP-1 built as part of the Manhattan Project had a maximum power of half a watt and was entirely self cooling, it never even got noticeably warm at any time)
2. some experimental reactors have been deliberately built without a cooling system to aid in studying the effects of reactor meltdown, etc. (unfortunately these were also built without any containment facility, to aid in data collection and caused significant downwind contamination)
3. reactors designed for power production require a cooling system both to remove heat from the core as it is generated (thus preventing a meltdown) and to move that heat to the power generation building where it is used to make steam to turn the turbines that turn the generators that make the electricity
4. reactors designed for plutonium production require a cooling system only to remove heat from the core as it is generated (thus preventing a meltdown)
5. reactors designed for medical (and other) isotope production require a cooling system only to remove heat from the core as it is generated (thus preventing a meltdown)
6. reactors designed for direct nuclear propulsion systems(e.g. jet engine, rocket engine) require a cooling system both to remove heat from the core (thus preventing a meltdown in flight) and to heat their working fluid (e.g. air, hydrogen gas; respectively) prior to expelling it through the exhaust nozzle to generate thrust to move the vehicle
7. etc.

Currently, 100 nuclear power plants are operating the United States per the statistics of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as of April 2004.

If the control rods in a nuclear reactor were somehow to be instantly "jerked" out of the reactor, the reactor would go supercritical. If they were pulled at a normal rate and all of the control rods were pulled out, the reactor would start up and heat up and would end up running far too hot. Any one of several safety systems would shut the reactor down before this could happen. If the safety systems were disabled, the reactor would overheat and a meltdown may occur.

Kewaunee and Point Beach. See NRC link below

Baffles in reactors help to promote uniform mixing of reactants, improve heat transfer efficiency, and prevent the formation of stagnant zones within the reactor vessel. This is important for maintaining optimal reaction conditions and maximizing the conversion of reactants into products.

The energy in a nuclear reactor comes from the process of nuclear fission. This process involves splitting atoms of uranium or plutonium, which releases a large amount of heat energy. This heat is then used to generate steam, which drives turbines connected to generators to produce electricity.

Nuclear power plants provide a reliable and consistent source of energy without producing greenhouse gas emissions, making them a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. They also have the capability to generate large amounts of electricity efficiently, which can help meet high energy demands. Additionally, nuclear power plants can contribute to energy security by reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels.

The first nuclear reactor became operational in 1942 as a part of the Manhattan Project, which was a research and development project during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. This marked the beginning of the nuclear age, leading to the development of nuclear power for electricity generation and revolutionizing the field of nuclear physics.