In what ways did constitutional development between 1860 and 1877 amount to revolution?

Answer 1

Black farmers in America have had a long and arduous struggle to own land and to

operate independently. For more than a century after the Civil War, deficient civil rights

and various economic and social barriers were applied to maintaining a system where

many blacks worked as farm operators with a limited and often total lack of opportunity

to achieve ownership and operating independence. Diminished civil rights also limited

collective action strategies, such as cooperatives and unions. Even so, various types

of cooperatives, including farmer associations, were organized in black farming communities

prior to the 1960s. During the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement brought a new

emphasis on cooperatives. Leaders and organizations adopted an explicit purpose

and role of black cooperatives in pursuing independent farming. Increasingly, new

technology and integrated contracting systems are diminishing independent decisionmaking

in the management of farms. As this trend expands, more cooperatives may

be motivated, with a determination similar to those serving black farmers, to pursue

proactive strategies for maintaining independent farming.

Acknowledgments

The idea of conducting this research was developed from reading an unpublished

manuscript by a co-worker, Beverly Rotan, which was based on several case studies

of black farmer cooperatives. Her research indicated that historical background was

essential to understanding many of the current conditions for black farmers and their

cooperatives. Discussions with Beverly and another co-worker, Edgar Lewis, were

indispensable in the effort to adequately understand the goals and practices of black

farmers and cooperatives. John Zippert of the Federation of Southern

Cooperatives/Land Assistance Fund provided background on some of the major developments

of black farmer cooperatives during the 1960s and 1970s, as well as providing

a substantial set of key documents. The historical component of this report relied to

a large extent on three excellent books by the Smithsonian Institution scholar, Pete

Daniel (see the References section). Furthermore, he reviewed an earlier version. His

suggestions were helpful for making several improvements in this report. A second

version was reviewed by Professor Robert Zabawa of Tuskegee University and

Spencer Wood, a doctoral candidate in sociology at the University of Wisconsin. They

offered several excellent critical observations and suggestions.

Answer 2

Secession of the South, Emancipation Proclamation, 13 and 14th amendment, Freedmen's Bureau, Reconstruction, Ku Klux Clan, all of these amount to revolution. It changed the South for good. There's more but that is in the later years from the Civil War

Answer 3

There were a lot of changes being made. The South didn't want to do what the North wanted and then when they lost, they really had to pay.