photography

1. The art or process of producing images of objects on photosensitive surfaces.
2. The art, practice, or occupation of taking and printing photographs.
3. A body of photographs.

The process of forming stable or permanent visible images directly or indirectly by the action of light or other forms of radiation on sensitive surfaces. Traditional photography uses the action of light to cause changes in a film of silver halide crystals in which development converts exposed silver halide to (nonsensitive) metallic silver. Following exposure in a camera or other device, the film or plate is developed, fixed in a solution that dissolves the undeveloped silver halide, washed to remove the soluble salts, and dried. Printing from the original, if required, is done by contact or optical projection onto a second emulsion-coated material, and a similar sequence of processing steps is followed. Digital photography captures images directly with an electronic photosensor. See also Photographic materials.

Photography is practiced on a professional level for portraiture and for various commercial and industrial applications, including the preparation of photographs for advertising, illustration, display, and record-keeping. Press photography is for newspaper and magazine illustrations of topical events and objects. Photography is used at several levels in the graphic arts to convert original photographs or other illustrations into printing plates for high-quality reproduction in quantity. Industrial photography includes the generation and reproduction of engineering drawings, high-speed photography, schlieren photography, metallography, and many other forms of technical photography which can aid in the development, design, and manufacture of various products. Aerial photography is used for military reconnaissance and mapping, civilian mapping, urban and highway planning, and surveys of material resources. Biomedical photography is used to reveal or record biological structures, often of significance in medical research, diagnosis, or treatment. Photography is widely applied to preparing projection slides and other displays for teaching through visual education. See also Printing; Schlieren photography.

Photography is one of the most important tools in scientific and technical fields. It extends the range of vision, allowing records to be made of things or events which are difficult or impossible to see because they are too faint, too brief, too small, or too distant, or associated with radiation to which the eye is insensitive. Technical photographs can be studied at leisure, measured, and stored for reference or security. The acquisition and interpretation of images in scientific and technical photography usually requires direct participation by the scientist or skilled technicians.

Infrared photography

Emulsions made with special sensitizing dyes can respond to radiation at wavelengths up to 1200 nanometers, though the most common infrared films exhibit little sensitivity beyond 900 nm. One specialized color film incorporates a layer sensitive in the 700–900-nm region and is developed to false colors to show infrared-reflecting subjects as bright red. See also Infrared radiation.

Photographs can thus be made of subjects which radiate in the near-infrared, such as stars, certain lasers and light-emitting diodes, and hot objects with surface temperatures greater than 500°F (260°C). Infrared films are more commonly used to photograph subjects which selectively transmit or reflect near-infrared radiation, especially in a manner different from visible radiation. Infrared photographs taken from long distances or high altitudes usually show improved clarity of detail because atmospheric scatter (haze) is diminished with increasing wavelength and because the contrast of ground objects may be higher as a result of their different reflectances in the near-infrared. Grass and foliage appear white because chlorophyll is transparent in the near-infrared, while water is rendered black because it is an efficient absorber of infrared radiation. See also Infrared imaging devices.

Ultraviolet photography

Two distinct classes of photography rely on ultraviolet radiation. In the first, the recording material is exposed directly with ultraviolet radiation emitted, reflected, or transmitted by the subject; in the other, exposure is made solely with visible radiation resulting from the fluorescence of certain materials when irradiated in the ultraviolet. In the direct case, the wavelength region is usually restricted by the camera lens and filtration to 350–400 nm, which is readily detected with conventional black-and-white films. Ultraviolet photography is accomplished at shorter wavelengths in spectrographs and cameras fitted with ultraviolet-transmitting or reflecting optics, usually with specialized films. In ultraviolet-fluorescence photography, ultraviolet radiation is blocked from the film by filtration over the camera lens and the fluorescing subject is recorded readily with conventional color or panchromatic films. Both forms of ultraviolet photography are used in close-up photography and photomicrography by mineralogists, museums, art galleries, and forensic photographers. See also Ultraviolet radiation.

High-speed photography

Photography at exposure durations shorter than those possible with conventional shutters or at frequencies (frame rates) greater than those achievable with motion picture cameras with intermittent film movements is useful in a wide range of technical applications.

The best conventional between-the-lens shutters rarely yield exposures shorter than 1/500 s. Some focal plane shutters are rated at 1/2000 or 1/4000 s but may take 1/100 s to traverse the film format. Substantially shorter exposures are possible with magnetooptical shutters (using the Faraday effect), with electrooptical shutters (using the Kerr effect), or with pulsed electron image tubes. Alternatively, a capping shutter may be used in combination with various pulsed light sources which provide intense illumination for very short durations, including pulsed xenon arcs (electronic flash), electric arcs, exploding wires, pulsed lasers, and argon flash bombs. Flash durations ranging from 1 millisecond to less than 1 nanosecond are possible. Similarly, high-speed radiographs have been made by discharging a short-duration high-potential electrical pulse through the x-ray tube. See also Faraday effect; Kerr effect; Laser; Stroboscopic photography.

The classical foundation for serial frame separation is the motion picture camera. Intermittent movement of the film in such cameras is usually limited to 128 frames/s (standard rates are 16 and 24). For higher rates (up to 10,000 frames/s or more) continuous film movement is combined with optical compensation, as with a rotating plane-parallel glass block, to avoid image smear. Pictures made at these frequencies but projected at normal rates slow down (stretch) the motion according to the ratio of taking and projection rates. Higher rates, up to 10⁷ frames/s, have been achieved with a variety of ingenious special-purpose cameras. In some, the sequence of photographs is obtained with a rapidly rotating mirror at the center of an arcuate array of lenses, and a stationary strip of film. In others, the optics are stationary and the film strip is moved at high speed by mounting it around the outside or inside of a rapidly rotating cylinder. To overcome mechanical limitations on the rotation of mirrors or cylindrical film holders at high speeds, image dissection methods have been employed, that is, an image is split into slender sections and rearranged to fill a narrow slit at the film. The image is unscrambled by printing back through the dissecting optics. See also Cinematography.

Remote sensing

The art of aerial photography, in which photographs of the Earth's surface are made with specialized roll-film cameras carried aloft on balloons, airplanes, and spacecraft, is an important segment of a broader generic technology, remote sensing. The film is often replaced with an electronic sensor, the sensor system may be mounted on an aircraft or spacecraft, and the subject may be the surface of a distant planet instead of Earth. Remote sensing is used to gather military intelligence; to provide most of the information for plotting maps; for evaluating natural resources (minerals, petroleum, soils, crops, water) and natural disasters; and for planning cities, highways, dams, pipelines, and airfields. Aerial photography normally provides higher ground resolution and geometric accuracy than the imagery obtained with electronic sensors, especially when covering small areas, so it continues as the foundation for mapmaking, urban planning, and some other applications. Films designed for aerial photography, both black-and-white and color, have somewhat higher contrast than conventional products because the luminance range of the Earth's surface as seen from altitudes of 5000 ft (1500 m) or more is roughly 100 times lower than that of landscapes photographed horizontally. See also Aerial photograph; Photogrammetry; Topographic surveying and mapping.

The acquisition of image information with scanning sensors mounted on spacecraft provides an inexpensive means for gathering photographs of large areas of the Earth or the whole Earth at regular intervals (minutes or hours for meteorological satellites, days for Earth resources satellites) or for photographing subjects which cannot be reached with aircraft or approached with spacecraft. Some sensors operate at wavelengths beyond those detected by infrared films. The image information is transmitted to receiving stations on Earth, usually processed electronically to correct for geometric and atmospheric factors, and recorded on a variety of image recorders. Scanning sensors, as well as film cameras, are employed in aerial reconnaissance because they can transmit tactical information to ground stations for evaluation before the aircraft returns to base or is shot down. Synthetic aperture radar, which maps the reflectance of microwaves from the surface of the Earth and other planets, represents another form of remote sensing for both military and commercial purposes in which the information is returned to Earth and reconstructed in photographic form for study. See also Aerial photograph; Meteorological satellites; Military satellites; Remote sensing.

Digital photography

The process of electronic acquisition, the equivalent of taking a photograph, is often referred to as image capture.

Light intensity is detected in digital camera by an photosensor. This is normally a charge-coupled device (CCD), although complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) devices are beginning to appear in some systems. See also Charge-coupled devices.

When photons strike the sensor, they give up energy. This causes electrons to be emitted, turning the energy of the photons into electrical energy. The number of electrons that are emitted can be measured to determine how many photons struck the capture element, and from this the scanner can generate a value for the intensity of light arriving from the point on the original being analyzed.

The aim of the digitization stage is to capture all the information from an original that will be needed in the reproduction and convert it into an array of binary numbers that a computer can process. The human visual system actively seeks cues that will give it information about the objects within the visual field, and a reproduction of an image that contains a large amount of detail is almost always preferred to one in which some of the detail has been lost. The more information that the reproduction contains about the original scene—the objects in it, their colors, textures—the more realistic the reproduction appears. See also Image processing.

Like conventional cameras, digital cameras come in compact, single-lens reflex, and large-format varieties. Low-resolution compacts are useful for producing classified advertisements and tend to have relatively simple optics, image-sensing electronics, and controlling software. Digital cameras are often based on existing single-lens reflex camera designs with the addition of CCD backs and storage subsystems. The capture resolution of these cameras is ideal for news photography and other applications with similar quality requirements. See also Camera.

When photography was announced to the world in 1839, almost immediately three relationships to the body were established. The most pervasive of these was its use to produce portraits and snapshots that have served as surrogates, even fetishistic tokens, of the human body. As new technologies made photography progressively cheaper throughout the nineteenth century, photographic portraiture, produced in the studios of trained technicians, worked its way down to ever lower classes of society. Photographic portraits made present to broad classes of people images of the bodies of family members who had emigrated, gone off to war, died, or otherwise absented themselves, a privilege enjoyed previously only by the rich. For the last third of the nineteenth century photographic portraits were also collected and assembled into albums as a way for the public to see the leading political, artistic, and literary figures of the day.

As a different kind of surrogate, photography itself extended the reach of the body's comprehension of the world. Doing so more insistently than did other forms of mimetic representation, photography seemed to stand in for the direct, bodily experience of the individual, its lens becoming the roving eye of the beholder. Most obviously one sees this in travel and expeditionary photographs of the nineteenth century, for which skilled professionals travelled forth from Western Europe and the eastern USA to record and bring back views of sites as various as India, the American West and the Middle East.

Finally, photography played a role in the nineteenth-century comprehension of the body itself within the emerging sciences. Ethnographers saw in photography the potential to prove theories of racial difference, using photographs showing faces and full (frequently unclothed) bodies that had been produced both for the tourist trade and specifically for ethnographic study. Early investigators of psychiatry and eugenics considered the medium an objective tool of research, finding evidence in straightforward face shots as well as those that had been manipulated. Studies of physiognomy and the emotions were illustrated with photographs of faces stimulated by electrical charges, while eugenicists sought to arrive visually at average ‘types’ by exposing a single piece of photographic paper to multiple portrait negatives, one on top of the next, so that only the most commonly held traits appeared in the final picture. Within criminology, photographic ‘mug’ shots fixed the identities of convicted criminals, while detailed pictures of ears and other body parts enabled a crude method of tracking suspects, as today fingerprints and DNA are used. Physiology was advanced by studies of motion in the 1870s and 80s, which fixed the positions the body held through the course of a variety of activities. Using light waves beyond the visible spectrum, the invention of the X-ray toward the end of the century let physicians study internal body parts.

At the end of the nineteenth century, photography's relationship to the body changed with the invention and mass marketing of George Eastman's Kodak, the first snapshot camera. The ease of use and mobility of this hand-held camera (‘you push the button; we do the rest, ’ boasted the ads) made it an extension of one's own body. Already a ‘point and shoot’ camera, this early Kodak allowed individuals to take over many of the functions previously performed by professional photographers. Ever-growing masses of people could now make portraits and travel views of their own, with a camera handily carried anywhere. Within the snapshot photographs that emerged, the body itself was recorded in increasingly common and casual ways.

Also beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, mass reproduction of photographs through new printing technologies expanded the audience for documentary and journalistic photography, which depended for its claim to veracity upon the imagined elision between the human eye and the mechanical camera (an idea manifested in the title of a play based on Christopher Isherwood's life in Berlin in the 1920s, I Am A Camera). Major examples within this genre in which the body itself figured prominently are the documentary photographs produced for the Farm Security Administration, part of the USAs efforts to ameliorate the ravages of the Depression of the 1930s, and the surrealist-inspired work of photographers working in and around Paris in the 1930s, such as Hans Bellmer.

Almost from the time of its invention, photography included the production of erotic imagery as a covert subset of its representations of the body. In the nineteenth century as well as the twentieth, such imagery often finessed the fine line between art and pornography. Nineteenth-century photographers of the (usually female) nude included among their customers both artists seeking escape from the expense and possible tedium of working from live models and a more general public seeking this imagery for its potential eroticism. In the first third of the twentieth century, many photographers (mostly male) turned to the female nude body as a subject that would align their work in this new medium with the more traditional arts.

In the decades after World War II, photography of the body within the burgeoning mass media largely reinforced gender differences the war had momentarily eased. Fashion magazines returned in their imagery to a level of elegance and fancy dress not seen since the 1920s. Advertising photography, now in its heyday, constructed safely differing roles for men and women through images in which body posture, facial expression, grooming, and dress figured prominently. In the same postwar years, photographers working outside the commercial realm made pictures in which the body revealed strains on social relationships, as the dominance of straight, white males was questioned by new roles for women, greater freedom for people of colour, and an incipient visibility for gays and lesbians.

In the 1960s photography made evident the centrality of the body to radical changes in society. While battlefield corpses had figured prominently in photographs from the American Civil War, government censors successfully ruled out any large-scale photographic representation of battle carnage until the Vietnam War, when widespread disapproval of the war propelled photographers to defy censors. Not only did journalistic pictures record the carnage brought to the body by the war in Southeast Asia and the protest against it in Europe and America, but artistic pictures seemed to reflect symbolically the psychic stress of world events on otherwise normal bodies.

In the 1970s photography and the body intersected in new ways. No longer considered a transparent record or means of abstraction, as it had been for much of its history, photography was now seen as marking the extent to which the world is mediated, coming to us already as a representation. Using photography this way, artists explored the social and cultural bases of such attributes of the body as gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. Artists used photography to document artistic performances that used the body in a very physical way to redefine experience. Feminist artists employed photography as a means to record and comment upon transformations to which they submitted their bodies.

Postmodern artists in recent decades have followed the lead of these artists of the 1970s to make photographs of the body that are explicitly political, dealing with problematic notions of sexuality and self identity. In these works bodies are embedded in society, entering clearly defined social discourses at the time of their making. Photographers show the gay male body at precisely the time that the AIDS epidemic has made consensual invisibility no longer viable. Other photographers act out assumed or fictive roles, refusing to seek any ‘true’ or ‘real’ self. Still others have explored the social dimensions of race and racism by referring back to nineteenth-century photography that sought to define racial difference, thus recycling the history of photography's involvement with the body.

— John Pultz

Bibliography

• Pultz, J. (1995). Photography and the body. Everyman Art Library, London

See also art and the body; cinematography.

The process of making images on a chemically sensitive plate or film, using the energy of light or other radiant source.

Term used to describe the technique of producing an image by the action of light on a chemically prepared material. Although used privately as early as 1833 (see

See the Abbreviations for further details.

For more information on photography, visit Britannica.com.

France was the birthplace of photography, though England (with Fox Talbot) may claim a share in the invention. It was Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833) who in the 1820s, cooperating with Daguerre, developed the process from which modern photography derives.

In the 19th c. the new invention was used in France as elsewhere to record aspects of reality. It had its greatest success in portraiture [see Nadar], but also served to depict exotic places (Du Camp left memorable images of the Egypt he visited with Flaubert) or to record social reality closer to home. Scientists used the camera to investigate movement—a development which contributed to the invention of the cinematograph in France [see Cinema]. As photography became a profitable business, its status as an art was much disputed, but it found a major role in the reproduction of existing art works.

The first half of the 20th c. saw significant new developments. The creation of lightweight cameras made photography more accessible to all and allowed photographers to produce spontaneous-seeming images of everyday life. The fashion industry and advertising both contributed to the development of the art. Photo-reportage developed rapidly, finding outlets in journals such as Vu (1928) and Regards (1931). Some of the most familiar images of French life were produced by photographers who came to prominence at this time, notably Eugène Atget (1857-1927), Jacques-Henri Lartigue (1894-1986), Henri Cartier-Bresson (b. 1908), and Robert Doisneau (1912-94). Gisèle Freund (b. 1912), an immigrant from Germany, followed Nadar's example in producing remarkable portraits of writers (Malraux, Beauvoir, Beckett, etc.).

At the same time, photography was welcomed and exploited by the literary avant-garde, particularly the Surrealists. Their journals featured photography and photomontage, and Breton combined photographers' iconic images and his own text in an arresting way in Nadja. The Surrealists appreciated (e.g. in the work of Atget) the raw ‘document’ quality of the photographic image, but equally its ability to reveal the strangeness of familiar reality—this was enhanced by deliberate distortion, collage, and similar techniques. Major talents associated with this movement were the American Man Ray (1890-1976), the Hungarian André Kertész (1894-1985), the German Germaine Krull (1897-1985), and the Transylvanian Brassaï (1899-1984), all of whom adopted Paris as their creative home. The continuing importance of photography in contemporary art can be seen, for example, in the work of Marcel Duchamp and Yves Klein (1928-62).

Of the French writers who have meditated on the effects of photography, the most significant is Roland Barthes. His critical essays, in Mythologies and elsewhere, express suspicion of the pseudo-real nature of the photographic image and its contribution to an illusory imaginaire [see Sartre; Lacan], but he pays homage to its quasi-magical powers in his late essay, La Chambre claire.

[Peter France]

In the first history of photography published in New York in 1849, there is the tantalizing story of an Indiana youth, James M. Wattles, trying unsuccessfully in 1828 to secure survivable pictures on writing paper placed dry in a camera obscura (precursor to the camera) after he had soaked it in potash. But, so the story goes, his parents laughed at him and bade him attend to his studies and forget about such "moonshine" thoughts.

Only a few years later, W. H. Fox Talbot, a member of the English landed gentry, made what he called "photogenic drawings"--images of leaves, lace, and feathers secured on silver nitrate paper exposed in a camera obscura, the paper afterward being washed in a strong solution of salt to fix the images. The process gave Talbot what we now call a negative, and in a patent awarded in 1841, his improved process--calotype--called for contact printing the negatives on silver chloride paper for positives. Talbot's calotype process was thus the forerunner of photography's mainstream negative-positive systems that evolved ultimately to the roll film systems we know today.

But in 1826 or 1827, a Frenchman, Joseph Niepce, had secured the world's earliest surviving photograph (now in the Gernsheim collection at the University of Texas at Austin) on a pewter plate sensitized with bitumen and exposed for eight hours in a camera obscura. He called the direct positive image of a pigeon house and barn next to his home a heliograph. From 1829 until his death in 1833, Niepce worked in partnership with another Frenchman, Louis J. M. Daguerre, who in 1839 invented a means of taking photographs on copper plates lightly coated with sensitized silver (similarly exposed without a negative in a camera of new design) and "developed" over mercury fumes. That same year, the French government purchased the rights to the new "daguerreotype" process and donated them freely to the world. A daguerreotype, such as might be found today among old family possessions or in antique stores, was covered with glass and placed in a wood or leather case (usually about 3 1/2 by 4 inches in size), both to protect it and to mimic the manner in which miniature oil portraits were packaged. Millions of daguerreotypes (mostly portraits) were made the world over from 1840 to about 1860. There followed cheaper methods of securing a cased image photo on glass, ambrotype, and on iron plates, tintype, the latter process remaining popular until well into the twentieth century at seaside resorts and amusement parks. In a sidelight to daguerreotype history, the first U.S. camera patent was awarded in May 1840 for a more primitive version of Daguerre's camera to New Yorker Alexander S. Wolcott, a manufacturer of instruments and dental equipment. But his camera was not equipped with a lens. Instead, sunlight was directed through an opening and reflected on the image plate by an internal concave mirror, restricting picture size to 2 by 2 1/2 inches.

Photography's formative years in America followed a pattern similar to the American experience in art. Many who took up the daguerreotype process were house, sign, or carriage painters. Some, like their contemporaries in folk artistry, traveled the back roads of the nation as itinerant photographers. Much credit is due the American painter and inventor Samuel F. B. Morse, who visited Daguerre in 1839 and afterward not only taught the daguerreotype process to Mathew Brady and a host of Brady's peers but instilled in his students an appreciation for the rudiments of traditional art techniques. Although daguerreotype cameras were carried on several expeditions to the Canadian border, the American West, and the Yucatan, the process was ill suited to outdoor use. In 1849, American rights were secured to Talbot's calotype process, but by then, both a better (but short-lived) French paper negative and three newly invented glass negative modes were taking center stage. The process adopted after 1855 by most photographers called for sensitizing the glass negative with collodion (ether mixed with gun cotton) and exposing the plate in the camera while it was still wet. It is understandable that during the subsequent thirty-year wet-plate era, photography continued to remain largely in the hands of professionals. There is no recorded manual for amateurs, for example, prior to one published by a wealthy Baltimorean, George B. Coale, in 1858, and it is doubtful that even this pocket-size booklet achieved wide distribution.

Just as landscape painting in America lagged behind oil portraiture, so American landscape photography developed slowly. The United States at mid-century lacked a leisure class to adopt photography as a hobby, as did many amateurs in Europe. In addition, Americans appear to have preferred scenic lithographs rather than photographs, whereas abroad, noted photographers and publishers sold numerous editions of large photographs of cityscapes and tourist meccas in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Public excitement with the opening of the American West probably had much to do with the success of such photographers as Eadweard Muybridge, Carlton E. Watkins, William H. Jackson, Timothy O'Sullivan, and Andrew J. Russell in selling large prints made with new "mammoth-plate" cameras of scenes in the wilds of today's Yosemite, Yellowstone, and other national parks and territories. Some of these photographs were offered in the same galleries that handled paintings by artists of the Hudson River school.

The introduction in 1860 of portrait photographs mounted on cards--the carte de visite, or visiting-card style upped to a larger cabinet size in 1866--ended the reign of daguerreotype photography. It also led to the creation of the family photo album and to a new public taste for flamboyantly posed portraits of celebrities, using dramatic lights and period props. As the name Brady dominated the daguerreotype era, Napoleon Sarony became the undoubted American master of the card portrait era (1860s to the turn of the century). Nevertheless, it was a pioneer Brady carte de visite of Abraham Lincoln, widely reproduced and distributed in the 1860 presidential campaign, that Lincoln later said helped elect him president.

Of equal and perhaps greater significance was the concurrent proliferation of card stereographs--double pictures mounted side by side for viewing in three dimensions in hand-held or newly manufactured home console viewing devices. The card stereoview format provides the world today with its most complete record of the transition from an agrarian to an industrial and urban way of life. Card stereoviews aroused public interest not only in views (domestic and foreign) but in fashion, genre, and news events photographs (a stereocard series, for example, portrayed the 1871 Chicago fire). Public viewing of card stereographs in the home is often characterized as a nineteenth-century form of American television.

Photographers who attended their national convention in Chicago in 1880 literally witnessed the birth of photography's modern era. A variety of reliable dry-plate glass negatives was shown, which could be sold to the public as well as the professional, ready-made for use at any time. A revolution in the medium and its practice was at hand. Eight years later when George Eastman brought out the Kodak (followed shortly by the first roll film), an estimated 84 million of the new dry plates had been sold. The manufacture of cameras designed for the new plates further doubled during the years 1895-1900.

But like many revolutions, this one, too, became fragmented. In the early 1880s, while photographers such as William Kurtz were specializing in taking portraits at night with flash powder, the journalist and social reformer Jacob Riis seized on flashlight photography as a means of better conveying the misery of slum life in New York City's tenements. This attracted the attention of a young civil service commissioner, Theodore Roosevelt, who as police commissioner (1895-1897) frequently took Riis with him on unannounced nighttime checks of city enforcement of health and safety regulations. At the turn of the century, other documentary photographers focused their cameras on the "vanishing race" of American Indians (Edward Curtis and Joseph Dixon were two), street life in New York (Percy Byron), Chicago (Sigmund Krausz), San Francisco's Chinatown (Arnold Genthe), and the arrival in New York of a new generation of immigrants (Lewis Hine). But there was little or no professional or fraternal interplay between any of these now celebrated documentary photographers and those of an emerging new school of art photographers. The works of the latter were individually printed and reproduced separately from text in a new publication, Camera Notes, edited by Alfred Stieglitz. To the Japanese-German dramatist, poet, and critic Sadakichi Hartmann, artistic photography, Stieglitz, and the New York Camera Club were "three different names for one and the same thing." But Hartmann also noted that the public at large never saw Camera Notes and that "ninety-nine persons out of a hundred [were] not yet familiar with the term 'artistic photography,' much less with its aspirations and aims."

The New York Camera Club was one of many such clubs established at the close of the nineteenth century. On their first outing in 1890, photographers in the New England club filled a yacht, which then "sailed down Narragansett Bay" with wealthy amateurs carrying some thirty view cameras and fifty or more Kodaks and Hawk-Eyes. But in launching the Photo-Secession movement in art photography a decade later, Stieglitz broke away from the camera club element. In a new publication, Camera Work (published from 1903 to 1917), he included the soft-focus pictorial, and more avant-garde works of a new elite group of photographers, among them Edward Steichen, Clarence White, Gertrude Käsebier, Alvin Langdon Coburn, F. Holland Day, Rudolph Eickemeyer, and Paul Strand. It was a time, internationally, of great artistic innovation (the cubist explosion in France, for example). Paul Strand, at age twenty-five, caught the spirit in 1915 when he produced his first abstract photographs. Stieglitz thereupon gave Strand a one-man exhibition and devoted the final issue of Camera Work to his works. During the 1920s, Stieglitz himself abandoned exhibiting pictorial photographs in favor of works by Picasso, Rodin, Marin, and other painters and sculptors. New York's famed Julien Levy Gallery (1931-1949) opened with an exhibition of surrealist works by George Platt Lynes and other photographers before mounting the works of "modern" artists such as Salvador Dali and Jean Cocteau.

A new realism became the vogue at this time when some of the best photographers--Strand, Steichen, Edward Weston, and later Ansel Adams--sought to make "straight" photographs --pictures unmanipulated, unsentimental, and sharply focused. The appearance of three new landmark cameras--the 35-mm Leica I, wide-aperture-lens Ermanox, and twin-lens-reflex Rolleiflex--greatly enhanced the new format. In the hands of Steichen and Irving Penn, these and other new small cameras provided appropriate tools for yet another new vogue, fashion photography. But more important, news photographers could abandon their bulky Graflex cameras, flash guns, and fast tank development in the darkroom. Using the new cameras and available light, such photographers as Eric Salomon in Europe and Albert Eisenstaedt, Margaret Bourke-White, and others in the United States became the pioneers of modern photojournalism. Socially concerned photographers such as Aaron Siskind made an early record (1928) of slum conditions in Harlem--even as his older and then unknown contemporary James Van Der Zee recorded in his studio, and sometimes in street scenes, the last vestiges of the black community's earlier social fabric.

Before 1900, the manufacture of cameras, emulsion-coated dry plates, photographic paper, and so on, was conducted by small firms. But the arrival on the scene of George Eastman and the dawn of a new era of business trusts and chain-store retail merchandising changed all this. By the turn of the century, photography, like the horse and buggy, was poised for a coming age of mechanization. At the outset, photography was clearly in the lead; there were, by 1900, 100,000 Kodak cameras alone in the hands of a new generation of amateurs, whereas only some 8,000 horseless carriages were registered by this time. During the years 1889-1909, production of photographic apparatus and materials grew at an annual rate of 11 percent, as against a growth rate of only about 4.7 percent annually by U.S. industrial production in general. In the latter years of the twentieth century, photography remained well ahead in the race, if there was one, with the horseless carriage, reaching an annual level of 10.7 billion in the number of photographs made by amateurs at the outset of the 1980s.

Until Kodachrome color film reached the market in 1935, no successful mode for combining color screens in a camera to produce color photographs had been perfected, although by the 1890s screens could be combined for three-dimensional viewing like card stereographs and could be projected on a wall or screen by a magic lantern. Polaroid introduced its first instant-picture camera in 1947, and the following year the manufacture of Nikon cameras began, leading after the Korean War to Japan's "invasion" of the U.S. camera market. The rudiments of camera automation appeared just before the outbreak of World War II with the development of prototype exposure control and flash synchronization systems.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art accepted its first collection of photographs (personal photographs belonging to Stieglitz) in 1926, fourteen years before the trend-setting department of photography was established at New York's Museum of Modern Art. When the J. Paul Getty Museum in California mounted a year-long series of five exhibitions to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the daguerreotype invention, the title chosen for the series was Experimental Photography, which allowed subjective illustration of early daguerreotype, calotype, and wet-plate-era works; photographs by painter photographers such as Thomas Eakins and Charles Sheeler; industrial and commonplace scenes artistically rendered by Strand, Weston, Walker Evans, and others; and a new subjectivity from the 1940s to the 1960s when realism yielded to a new ambiguity and introspection in photographs by André Kertesz, Harry Callahan, and W. Eugene Smith. Over the years, other exhibitions have categorized the motivations and achievements of great American photographers in other ways. The first comprehensive published study was completed by Time-Life Books in the 1970s.

Several critics have contended that every decade, in effect, imposes its own aesthetic. But one can find books of photographers' works covering the New Deal era that, on the one hand, suggest an "unbounded belief in the potential of growth," and on the other, portray works by Farm Security Administration photographers of the dust bowl conditions that led to John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. The immediacy of repeated crime, warfare, and other shocking scenes on television may also have dulled the public's ability to appreciate or respond to documentary photographs as in former times. Would photographs by Alexander Gardner of dead soldiers on the battlefield at Gettysburg today inspire a Gettysburg address?

Bibliography:

Robert Taft, Photography and the American Scene (1989); William Welling, Photography in America: The Formative Years 1839-1900 (1987).

Author:

William Welling

See also Bourke-White, Margaret; Brady, Mathew;Eastman, George; Lange, Dorothea; Steichen, Edward.

The development of photography in Russia during the nineteenth century followed a history similar to that of other European countries. After Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre and William Henry Fox Talbot made public their methods for capturing images on light-sensitized surfaces in 1839, I. Kh. Gammel, corresponding member to the Russian Academy of Sciences, visited both inventors to learn more about their work and collected samples of daguerreotypes and calotypes for study by Russian scientists. The Academy subsequently commissioned Russian scientists to further investigate both processes. As elsewhere, Russian experimenters quickly introduced a variety of refinements to the initial processes.

Photography found immediate popular success in Russia with the establishment of daguerreotype portrait studios in the 1840s. The similarity of the photograph to the Orthodox icon (an image that is believed to be a direct and truthful record of a physical being) heightened the early reception of photography and resulted in the persistence of portraiture as a major genre in Russia. While the first generation of photographers was largely foreign, native practitioners soon appeared. Some, such as Sergei Levitsky, achieved international recognition for their role in the development of photography. A personal acquaintance of Daguerre, Levitsky established studios in both France and Russia, serving as court photographer for the Romanovs and Napoleon III. During the later nineteenth century, Russian photography became institutionalized with the establishment of journals, professional societies, and exhibitions.

While photography was initially largely rejected as an art, it became widely accepted with the emergence of Realism. Russian photographers used the camera to capture the changing social landscape that accompanied the liberation of the serfs and growing urbanization. Simultaneously, ethnographic photography became an important genre with the expansion of the Russian Empire and the opening of Central Asia. Numerous photographic albums and research projects documented the peoples, customs, landscape, and buildings of diverse parts of the Russian Empire. With the rise of Symbolism, a younger generation of pictorialist photographers rejected the photograph as document in pursuit of more aestheticizing manipulated images.

At the turn of the century, technological developments led to the appearance of popular illustrated publications and the emergence of modern press photography. The Bulla family established the first Russian photo agency; they documented such events as the Russo-Japanese War, World War I, and the 1917 Revolutions. The growing commercial availability of inexpensive cameras and products rendered photography more pervasive in Russia. However, with the commercialization of photography, Russian practitioners became increasingly dependent upon foreign equipment and materials. With the outbreak of World War I, photographers were largely cut off from their supplies, and the ensuing crisis severely limited photographic activity until the mid-1920s.

After the October Revolution, Russian photography followed a unique path due to the ideological imperatives of the Soviet regime. The Bolsheviks quickly recognized the propaganda potential of photography and nationalized the photographic industry. During the civil war, special committees collected historical photographs, documented contemporary events, and produced photopropaganda. In the early 1920s, Russian modernist artists, such as Alexander Rodchenko, experimented with the technique of photomontage, the assembly of photographic fragments into larger compositions. With the growing politicization of art, photomontage and photography soon became important media for the creation of ideological images. The 1920s also witnessed the foundation of the Soviet illustrated mass press. Despite a shortage of experienced photojournalists, the development of the illustrated press cultivated a new generation of Soviet photographers. Mikhail Koltsov, editor of the popular magazine Ogonek, laid the groundwork for modern photojournalism in the Soviet Union by establishing national and international mechanisms for the production, distribution, and preservation of photographic material. Koltsov actively promoted photographic education and the further development of both amateur and professional Soviet photography through the magazine Sovetskoye foto.

During the First Five-Year Plan, creative debates emerged between modernist photographers and professional Soviet photojournalists. While both groups shunned aestheticizing pictorialist approaches and were ideologically committed to the development of uniquely Soviet photography, differences arose concerning creative methods, especially the relative priority to be given to the form versus content of the Soviet photograph. These debates stimulated the further development of Soviet documentary photography. The illustrated magazine USSR in Construction (SSSR na stroike; 1930 - 1941, 1949) was an important venue for Soviet documentary photography. Published in Russian, English, French, and German editions, it featured the work of top photographers and photomontage artists. Like the nineteenth-century ethnographic albums, USSR in Construction presented the impact of Soviet industrialization and modernization in diverse parts of the USSR in film-like photographic essays. As the 1930s progressed, official Soviet photography became increasingly lackluster and formulaic. Published photographs were subjected to extensive retouching and manipulation - not for creative ends, but for the falsification of reality and history. An abrupt change took place during World War II, when Soviet photojournalists equipped with 35-millimeter cameras produced spontaneous images that captured the terrors and triumphs of war.

Soviet amateur photography flourished in the late 1920s with numerous worker photography circles. Amateur activity was stimulated by the development of the Soviet photography industry and the introduction of the first domestic camera in 1930. Later that decade, however, government regulations increasingly restricted the activity of amateur photographers, and the number of circles quickly diminished. The material hardships of the war years further compounded this situation, practically bringing amateur photographic activity to a standstill. With independent activity severely circumscribed, Soviet photography was essentially limited to the carefully controlled area of professional photojournalism.

During the Thaw of the late 1950s, the appearance of new amateur groups led to the cultivation of a new generation of photographers engaged in social photography that captured everyday life. Their activity, however, was largely underground. By the 1970s, photography played an important role in Soviet nonconformist and conceptual art. Artists such as Boris Mikhailov appropriated and manipulated photographic imagery in a radical critique of photography's claims to truth. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, many photographic publications and industrial enterprises gradually disappeared. While professional practitioners quickly adapted to the new market system and creative photographers achieved international renown, the main area of activity was consumer snapshot photography, which flourished in Russia with the return of foreign photographic firms.

Bibliography

Elliott, David, ed. (1992). Photography in Russia, 1840 - 1940. London: Thames and Hudson.

King, David. (1997). The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin's Russia. New York: Metropolitan Books.

Sartori, Rosalind. (1987). "The Soviet Union." In A History of Photography: Social and Cultural Perspectives, ed. Jean-Claude Lemagny and André Rouillé. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Shudakov, Grigory (1983). Pioneers of Soviet Photography. New York: Thames and Hudson.

USSR in Construction. (1930 - 1941, 1949). Moscow: Gosizdat.

Walker, Joseph, et al. (1991). Photo Manifesto: Contemporary Photography in the USSR. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang.

—ERIKA WOLF

Quotes:

"I have often thought that if photography were difficult in the true sense of the term -- meaning that the creation of a simple photograph would entail as much time and effort as the production of a good watercolor or etching -- there would be a vast improvement in total output. The sheer ease with which we can produce a superficial image often leads to creative disaster." - Ansel Adams

"A photograph is a secret about a secret. The more it tells you the less you know." - Diane Arbus

"If I were just curious, it would be very hard to say to someone, I want to come to your house and have you talk to me and tell me the story of your life. I mean people are going to say, You're crazy. Plus they're going to keep mighty guarded. But the camera is a kind of license. A lot of people, they want to be paid that much attention and that's a reasonable kind of attention to be paid." - Diane Arbus

"The virtue of the camera is not the power it has to transform the photographer into an artist, but the impulse it gives him to keep on looking." - Brooks Atkinson

"It takes a lot of imagination to be a good photographer. You need less imagination to be a painter, because you can invent things. But in photography everything is so ordinary; it takes a lot of looking before you learn to see the ordinary." - David Bailey

"The photographic image... is a message without a code." - Roland Barthes

See more famous quotes about Photography

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2008)

Photography portal

Photography (pronounced /fәˈtɒɡrәfi/^[1]) is the process, activity and art of creating still or moving pictures by recording radiation on a sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or an electronic sensor. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects activate a sensitive chemical or electronic sensor during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically. Photography has many uses for business, science, art and pleasure.

Lens and mounting of a large-format camera.

A historic camera: the Contax S of 1949 — the first pentaprism SLR.

Nikon F of 1959 — the first 35mm film system camera.

Late Production Minox B camera with later style "honeycomb" selenium light meter

A portable folding reflector positioned to "bounce" sunlight onto a model

The word "photograph" was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (phos) "light" and γραφή (graphê) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together meaning "drawing with light".^[2] Traditionally, the products of photography have been called negatives and photographs, commonly shortened to photos.

Contents 1 Function 1.1 Exposure and rendering 2 Uses 3 History 4 Processes 4.1 Black-and-white 4.2 Color 4.3 Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared 4.4 Digital photography 5 Modes of production 5.1 Amateurism 5.2 Commerce 5.3 Art 5.4 Science and forensics 6 Other image forming techniques 7 Social and cultural implications 8 Law 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Function

The camera or camera obscura is the image-forming device, and photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the sensing medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory.

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to form a "latent image" (on film) or "raw file" (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film.

The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.^[3]

In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

Control	Description
Focus	The adjustment to place the sharpest focus where it is desired on the subject.
Aperture	Adjustment of the lens opening, measured as f-number, which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and diffraction – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.
Shutter speed	Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.
White balance	On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.
Metering	Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many modern cameras meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with the use of a separate light metering device or by the photographer's knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate the amount of light into a usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light. This is done by setting the "film speed" or ISO sensitivity into the meter.
ISO speed	Traditionally used to "tell the camera" the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light.
Autofocus point	On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

• Focal length and type of lens (telephoto or "long" lens, macro, wide angle, fisheye, or zoom)
• Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens
• Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.
• The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.

Exposure and rendering

A photographer using a flash

Camera controls are inter-related. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the "exposure") changes with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop halves the amount of light.

Exposures can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed and aperture. For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens's range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures.

Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame.

A photographer using a tripod for greater control over exposure

Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include:

• Chemicals and process used during film development
• Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed
• Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field
• Contrast – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background
• Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas
• Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas
• Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc
• Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)
• Paper size
• Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and white prints

Uses

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.

History

Main article: History of photography

First known surviving photograph, taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 by the "heliographic process".^[4] The image is of a 17th Century Flemish engraving showing a man leading a horse.

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Ti described a pinhole camera in the 5th century B.C.E,^[5] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,^[5][6] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride.^{[citation needed]} Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568.^{[citation needed]} Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.^{[citation needed]} The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.^{[citation needed]}

Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photograph was an image produced in 1827 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce. However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1839 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839.

Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more still during long exposure times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US photographer, Mathew Brady).

Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1880s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today.

In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.

Processes

A filter may be used to enhance or diminish the rendering of certain light wavelengths. For this photograph, a wratten #25 was used.

Black-and-white

See also: Monochrome photography

All photography was originally monochrome, most of these photographs were black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image of blue and white for example. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images. Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome.

Color

Main article: Color photography

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

Early color photograph taken by Prokudin-Gorskii (1915).

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and red light at last became available.

The first commercially succesful color process, the Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed grains of potato starch, and was one of many additive color screen products available between the 1890s and the 1950s. A later example of the additive screen process was the German Agfacolor introduced in 1932. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the first modern ('integrated tri-pack') color film which was developed by two musicians Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky ("Man" and "God") working with the Kodak Research Labs. It was Kodachrome, based on multiple layered silver gelatin emulsions that were each sensitized to one of the three additive colors--red, green, and blue. The cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes were created in those layers by adding color couplers during processing. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neu. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, use such incorporated-coupler techniques, though since the 1970s nearly all have used a technique developed by Kodak to accomplish this, rather than the original Agfa method. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment.

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

Main article: Full spectrum photography

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.^[7] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting.

Digital photography

A handheld digital camera, Canon Ixus class.

The Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields.

Nikon DSLR and scanner, which converts film images to digital

Sony Ericsson K800i camera phone.

Main article: Digital photography

See also: Digital versus film photography

Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras.^[8] Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer.^[9][10]

According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital.^[11]

According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the results of film to those of digital for certain applications including:

• film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and large format films (48 percent);
• creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent);
• capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent);
• the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and
• archival storage (38 percent)

Digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "illustrations," passing them as real photographs. Today's technology has made picture editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of RAW photos to verify against tampering of digital photos for forensics use.

Camera phones, combined with sites like Flickr, have led to a new kind of social photography.

Modes of production

Amateurism

An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable or superior to that of many professionals and may be highly specialised or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward.

Commerce

Manual shutter control and exposure settings can achieve unusual results.

Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
• Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually incorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes or product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may be nude, but this is not always the case.
• Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
• Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made.
• Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills.
• Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine.
• Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.
• Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
• Landscape photography: photographs of different locations.
• Wildlife photography that demonstrates life of the animals.
• Photo sharing: publishing or transfer of a user's digital photos online.
• Paparazzi

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

Art

Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage shows unique aesthetic of black and white photos.

During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art.

There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.

—^[12]

On February 14 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph "99 Cent II Diptychon" for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time.

• Conceptual photography

Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

Science and forensics

Wootton bridge collapse in 1861

Original Tay Bridge from the north showing structure based on towers built from cast iron columns. When enlarged this plate shows a key design flaw in the bridge: the smaller surviving towers were supported by a continuous girder at their tops, while the fallen towers lack this essential reinforcing element.

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north. The two surviving high towers show a gap in their tops when the picture is enlarged.

The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861 and the Staplehurst rail crash of 1865. One of the first systematic applications occurred at the scene of the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879. The court, just a few days after the accident, ordered James Valentine of Dundee to record the scene using both long distance shots and close-ups of the debris. The set of over 50 accident photographs was used in the subsequent court of inquiry so that witnesses could identify pieces of the wreckage, and the technique is now commonplace both at accident scenes and subsequent cases in courts of law. The set of over 50 Tay bridge photographs are of very high quality, being made on a large plate camera with a small aperture and using fine grain emulsion film on a glass plate. When the surviving positive prints are scanned at high resolution, they can be enlarged to show details of the failed components such as broken cast iron lugs and the tie bars which failed to hold the towers in place. The set of original photographs is held at Dundee City Library. The photographs show that, in the words of the Public Inquiry the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained". The methods used in analysing old photographs are collectively known as forensic photography.

Between 1846 and 1852 Charles Brooke invented a technology for the automatic registration of instruments by photography. These instruments included barometers, thermometers, psychrometers, and magnetometers, which recorded their readings by means of an automated photographic process.

5×7 in. unretouched photograph of the Wright brothers' first flight, 1903.

Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and developed much further since that time.

Other image forming techniques

Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

Social and cultural implications

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.^[13] It has been concluded that photography is a subjective discipline "to photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."^[14] Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo. Along with the context that a photograph is received in, photography is definitely a subjective form.

Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as a promoter of voyeuristic inhibitions. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.^[14] Michal Powell's Peeping Tom (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.^{[citation needed]}

"The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."^[14]

Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.^[15] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.^[14]

One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"^[16] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze"^[17] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.

Law

Main article: Photography and the law

Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent persons, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places. ^[18]

See also

Main article: Outline of photography

Forms Aviation photography Architectural photography Candid photography Cloudscape photography Documentary photography Erotic photography Fashion photography Fine art photography Fire photography Food photography Forensic photography Glamour photography Head shot Landscape art Miksang (contemplative photography) Nature photography Nude photography Old-time photography Photojournalism Portrait photography Sports photography Still life photography Stock photography Street photography Travel photography Underwater photography Vernacular photography VR photography War photography Wedding photography Wildlife photography Photographers and photographs List of most expensive photographs List of photographers Movie stills photographer

Equipment (cameras, etc.) Camera Camera Phone Color chart Digital camera Digital single-lens reflex camera Dry box Film base Film format Film holder Film scanner Film stock Filter Flash Gray card Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras List of photographic equipment makers Monopod Movie projector Perspective control lens Photographic film Photographic lens Rangefinder camera Single-lens reflex camera Slide projector Still camera Toy camera Tripod Twin-lens reflex camera Video camera View camera Zone plate History Albumen print Calotype Daguerreotype Timeline of photography technology

Techniques Aerial Photography Astrophotography Bokeh Contre-jour Cross processing Cyanotype Digiscoping Film developing Full spectrum photography Harris Shutter High dynamic range imaging High speed photography Image fusion Infrared photography Kinetic photography Kite aerial photography Lead room Light painting Lith-Print Macro photography Micrography, or Photomicrography Monochrome Photography Motion blur Night photography Panning Panoramic photography Photogram Photograph conservation Photographic mosaic Photographic print toning Push printing Push processing Rephotography Rollout photography Sabatier Effect Schlieren photography Stereoscopy Sun printing Tilted plane focus Time-lapse Ultraviolet photography Wide dynamic range Zoom burst

General concepts Camera obscura Composition in visual arts Diana camera Early photographers of York Gelatin-silver process Gum printing Hand-coloring Holography Kirlian photography Lomography Mourning portraits Negative North American Nature Photography Association Photograph Print permanence Vignetting Technical principles Angle of view Aperture Color temperature Depth of field Depth of focus Digital versus film photography Double exposure Exposure F-number Film format Film speed Perspective distortion Photographic printing Photographic processes Pinhole camera Reciprocity (photography) Red-eye effect Rule of thirds Science of photography Shutter speed Zone System

References

1. ^ ed. team: Randolph Quirk ... (1995), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (3rd ed.), Harlow: Longman Group Ltd, p. 1059, ISBN 0582237505 
2. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
3. ^ Joseph and Barbara Anderson, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited," Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 3–12. http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm
4. ^ "The First Photograph - Heliography". http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html. Retrieved 2009-09-29. "from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later." 
5. ^ ^{a b} Robert E. Krebs (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313324336. http://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&pg=PA20&dq=Mo-Ti+pinhole+camera+obscura&ei=o-QySaeFKILmkwTl9Y2tDQ#PPA171,M1. 
6. ^ Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001). "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective". Perception 30 (10): 1157–77. doi:10.1068/p3210. PMID 11721819. 
7. ^ Spectral curves of RGB and Hot Mirror filters.
8. ^ “Canon to Stop Making Single-Lens Camera” Associated Press, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
9. ^ www.voigtlaender.de
10. ^ The new Voigtlaender Vitolux S70 and Bessa III 667
11. ^ www.photographypress.co.uk
12. ^ Clive Bell. "Art", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
13. ^ Bissell, K.L., Photography and Objectivity (2000) findarticles.com (accessed 24/10/2008).
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Sontag, S., On Photography, Penguin, London (1977), pp 3–24.
15. ^ Levinson, P., The Soft Edge: a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York (1997), pp 37–48.
16. ^ John Urry. The tourist gaze (2nd ed.). SAGE. ISBN 9780761973478. http://books.google.com/books?id=bhhtg1sz0YAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
17. ^ Alex Gillespie. "Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze". http://stir.academia.edu/documents/0011/0117/Gillespie_tourist_photography_and_the_reverse_gaze.pdf. 
18. ^ British Journal of Photography article

Further reading

• Tom Ang (2002). Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer. Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0817437894. http://books.google.com/books?id=fu3akyrFZEMC&pg=PP1&ots=7Lz_nSD61F&dq=intitle:Dictionary+intitle:of+intitle:Photography+intitle:and+intitle:Digital+intitle:Imaging+inauthor:ang&sig=rIvH3xfe9fsjjTCgVXsvdsMeVoY#PPA5,M1. 
• Freeman Patterson, Photography and The Art of Seeing, 1989, Key Porter Books, ISBN 1-55013-099-4.
• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
• Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.
• Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914-1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8.

External links

Find more about Photography on Wikipedia's sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

• The Center for Fine Art Photography A non profit organization dedicated to promoting Photography as an Art Form.
• World History of Photography From The History of Art.
• Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida.
• Judging the authenticity of Photographs: 1800s to Today Guide for collectors and historians
• Rarities of the USSR photochronicles Pioneers of Soviet Photography.
• Aperture A not-for-profit organisation dedicated to the advancement of photography.
• "Every Picture Has a Story" – uses pictures from the Smithsonian's collections to show the development of the technology through the nineteenth century.
• Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988) the online version of the original Shades of Light published 1998, Gael Newton, National Gallery of Australia.
• The Royal Photographic Society Promotes the art and science of photography in the U.K.

v • d • e Photography Technical terms Angle of view · Aperture · Circle of confusion · Color temperature · Depth of field · Depth of focus · Exposure · Exposure compensation · F-number · Film format · Film speed · Focal length · Hyperfocal distance · Metering mode · Perspective distortion · Photograph · Photographic printing · Photographic processes · Reciprocity · Red-eye effect · Science of photography · Shutter speed · Zone system Genres Aerial · Black and White · Commercial · Cloudscape · Documentary · Erotic · Fashion · Fine art · Forensic · Glamour · High speed · Nature · Nude · Photojournalism · Pornography · Portrait · Post-mortem · Senior · Still life · Stock · Street · Vernacular · Underwater · Wedding · Wildlife Techniques Bokeh · Contre-jour · Cross processing · Cyanotype · Digiscoping · Film developing · Fill flash · Fireworks · Harris Shutter · Kite aerial · Macro · Multiple exposure · Night · Panoramic · Panning · Photogram (Kirlian) · Print toning · Push printing · Rephotography · Rollout · Sabatier Effect · Stereoscopy · Stopping Down · Sun printing · Infrared · Ultraviolet · Time-lapse · Tilt-shift Composition Geometry and symmetry · Framing · Headroom · Lead room · Rule of thirds · Simplicity Equipment Camera (Pinhole · Rangefinder · SLR · Still · TLR · Toy · View) · Darkroom (Enlarger · Safelight) · Film (Base · Format · Holder · Stock) · Filter · Flash · Manufacturers · Movie projector · Photographic lens · Slide projector · Tripod · Zone plate History Autochrome Lumière · Daguerreotype · Dufaycolor · Timeline of photographic technology Digital photography Digital camera (D-SLR · Digital back) · Photo sharing · Digital and film compared · Image sensor (CMOS APS · CCD · Three-CCD · Foveon X3) · Pixel · Film scanner Color photography Color · Color management (Color space · Primary color · RGB · CMYK) · Color film (Print · Slide) Photographic processing C-41 process · Cross processing · Developer · Dye coupler · E-6 process · Fixer · Push processing  · Stop bath  · K-14 process Other topics Camera obscura · Gelatin-silver process · Gum printing · Holography · Lomography · Photography and the law · Photography museums and galleries (category) · Print permanence · Vignetting · Visual arts List of photographers · List of most expensive photographs

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - fotografering

Nederlands (Dutch)
fotografie

Français (French)
n. - photographie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Fotografie

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - φωτογραφική τέχνη, φωτογράφηση

Italiano (Italian)
fotografia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - fotografia (f)

Русский (Russian)
фотография

Español (Spanish)
n. - fotografía

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - fotografi, fotografering

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
摄影, 摄影术

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 攝影, 攝影術

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 사진술, 사진 촬영

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 写真術, 写真撮影

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) جغرافيه نباتيه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮מלאכת הצילום‬

If you are unable to view some languages clearly, click here.

To select your translation preferences click here.