Century - 1700s

In the 1800s, jobs were largely divided between agriculture, industrial work, and trade. Many people worked as farmers, tending to crops and livestock, especially in rural areas. The rise of the Industrial Revolution saw a shift towards factory jobs, where workers operated machinery and produced goods. Additionally, trades such as blacksmithing, carpentry, and weaving were common, alongside roles in emerging urban centers like clerks and shopkeepers.

When George III became king of Great Britain in 1760, he aimed to assert greater control over the colonies and strengthen the monarchy's power. He initiated policies that sought to increase revenue through taxation, which ultimately led to tensions with the American colonies. His reign was marked by significant events, including the American Revolution, as colonial resistance to British rule grew. George III's commitment to his vision of monarchy played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of the time.

"Common Sense," written by Thomas Paine in 1776, had a profound impact on American colonists by articulating the case for independence from British rule. It challenged the legitimacy of monarchy and encouraged the idea of self-governance, resonating with the growing discontent among colonists. The pamphlet helped galvanize public opinion in favor of independence, making the revolutionary ideas accessible to a broader audience. Its persuasive arguments played a crucial role in uniting colonists and fostering a sense of American identity.

In the 1700s, news primarily spread through printed materials such as newspapers, pamphlets, and broadsides, which were distributed in urban centers. Word of mouth also played a crucial role, as people shared information in social gatherings, markets, and public meetings. Additionally, letters and messengers facilitated communication between distant locations. This combination of print media and personal interactions allowed news to circulate, albeit slowly compared to today's standards.

In the 18th century, the concept of reason of state significantly influenced international relations by prioritizing state interests over moral or ethical considerations. This pragmatic approach often justified wars, alliances, and diplomatic maneuvers aimed at enhancing national power and security. Political leaders, particularly in Europe, employed reason of state to navigate the complexities of balance-of-power dynamics, leading to a more calculated and strategic form of diplomacy. Ultimately, this shift contributed to the emergence of modern statecraft, where realpolitik became a guiding principle in international affairs.

In the 18th century, "enthusiasm" referred to a fervent and passionate zeal, often linked to religious or spiritual fervor. It was seen both positively, as a source of inspiration and motivation, and negatively, as a potential for fanaticism or irrationality. Enlightenment thinkers critiqued excessive enthusiasm, advocating for reason and moderation instead. Thus, the term carried a dual connotation, reflecting both admiration for passionate conviction and caution against uncontrolled fervor.

The "i word" that Samuel Adams was advised not to mention was "independence." During the early stages of the American Revolution, discussing independence from Britain was considered too radical and could alienate potential allies. Adams and other leaders were cautious about using the term, focusing instead on issues like taxation and representation.

The concept of race emerged in the 18th century as a means to categorize and differentiate human populations based on physical characteristics, particularly in the context of European colonial expansion and the transatlantic slave trade. Enlightenment thinkers sought to classify humanity scientifically, leading to hierarchical classifications that often justified colonialism, exploitation, and systemic inequalities. This period also coincided with the rise of nationalism and the need to define cultural identities, further solidifying race as a social construct with profound implications for power dynamics and social relations.

During the 16th to 18th centuries, the hospitality industry began to evolve significantly, particularly in Europe. Inns and taverns became popular as travel increased due to trade and exploration, providing necessary accommodations for merchants and travelers. In this period, the rise of the bourgeoisie and the establishment of more formal dining establishments led to the emergence of restaurants in places like France. The era also saw the development of hospitality as a profession, with a growing emphasis on service quality and guest experience.

The triangular trade in the 17th and 18th centuries succeeded due to the systematic exchange of goods, enslaved people, and raw materials among Europe, Africa, and the Americas. European traders supplied manufactured goods to Africa, where they exchanged them for enslaved individuals. These enslaved people were transported to the Americas to work on plantations producing cash crops like sugar and tobacco, which were then sent back to Europe. This lucrative cycle was driven by high demand for labor and commodities, leading to significant economic gains for traders and colonial powers.

Colonists felt pressured to expand westward in the mid-1700s due to a combination of factors, including the desire for land and the promise of economic opportunity. The growing population in the eastern colonies led to increased competition for resources, pushing settlers to seek new territory. Additionally, the allure of fertile land and the potential for wealth through agriculture and trade motivated many to move westward. This expansionist sentiment was further fueled by the belief in Manifest Destiny, which held that it was their right to spread across the continent.

A constitutional convention was called in 1776 primarily to address the need for a new governing framework for the American colonies seeking independence from British rule. The existing Articles of Confederation proved inadequate in effectively managing the newly formed nation, leading to issues such as economic instability and lack of centralized authority. Delegates aimed to create a stronger, more cohesive government that would protect individual rights and promote unity among the states. This resulted in the drafting of the United States Constitution, which established a federal system of governance.

In the 1700s to 1900s, both Germany and Italy were fragmented into numerous independent states, which hindered the formation of a unified empire. Germany was divided into many principalities and kingdoms within the Holy Roman Empire, while Italy was split into various kingdoms and city-states. Nationalism and unification movements only gained momentum in the 19th century, leading to the eventual unifications of Germany (1871) and Italy (1861). Prior to these unifications, the lack of political cohesion and centralized power prevented the establishment of empires akin to those of Britain, France, or Spain.

Isaac Newton inspired the philosophes of the Enlightenment by demonstrating the power of reason and empirical observation in understanding the natural world. His work, particularly in physics and mathematics, established a framework for scientific inquiry that emphasized rationality and skepticism of traditional beliefs. The success of Newtonian principles encouraged thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot to apply similar methods to human affairs, advocating for reason, progress, and the questioning of authority in religion and politics. This shift laid the groundwork for modern scientific and philosophical thought.

If the French had won the French and Indian War, North America would likely have seen a significantly different geopolitical landscape. French control would have expanded, potentially leading to stronger alliances with Native American tribes and the establishment of a larger French colonial presence. This victory might have delayed or altered the emergence of the United States, as British expansion would have been constrained, and the balance of power in North America would have favored France. Additionally, the cultural and linguistic influence of France would have been more pronounced in the region.

The Federalist Party, led by figures like Alexander Hamilton, advocated for a strong central government, a robust industrial economy, and close ties with Britain. In contrast, the Democratic-Republican Party, spearheaded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, championed states' rights, an agrarian economy, and a more decentralized government, favoring alliances with France. These differences reflected broader ideological divides regarding the balance of power between federal and state authorities and the direction of the nation's economic development. The two parties embodied conflicting visions for America's future, shaping early political discourse.

George Washington played a crucial role in the American Revolution as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, leading troops in their fight against British rule. The Declaration of Independence, adopted in 1776, articulated the colonies' reasons for seeking independence and served to unify the revolutionary efforts. Washington's leadership and the principles outlined in the Declaration helped to galvanize support for the war, emphasizing the colonies' commitment to freedom and self-governance. Together, they laid the foundation for the birth of the United States.

During the 18th century, the American colonies experienced significant economic, social, and political development. The rise of agriculture and trade led to increased prosperity, particularly in the Southern colonies with their cash crops like tobacco and rice. Additionally, the Enlightenment ideas promoted education and individual rights, fostering a growing sense of identity among colonists. Politically, tensions with Britain escalated, laying the groundwork for future revolutionary sentiments.

The years 1700-1799 are called the 18th century because the numbering of centuries is based on the year of the calendar system that starts with year 1. The first century includes the years 1 to 100, the second century spans 101 to 200, and this pattern continues. Thus, the years 1700 to 1799 represent the 18th set of hundred years, designating it as the 18th century.

In the 18th century, the perception of witches largely shifted from the intense witch hunts of earlier centuries to a more skeptical view influenced by the Enlightenment. Many individuals accused of witchcraft were often healers or wise women, using herbal remedies and traditional practices. While witch hunts continued in some areas, particularly in rural communities, the legal and societal consequences began to diminish, leading to fewer executions. Overall, the period marked a transition towards rational explanations for supposed witchcraft and a decline in the fervent persecution seen in previous centuries.

In the 18th century, sanitation systems were rudimentary and often inadequate, primarily relying on open sewers and cesspools for waste disposal. Many cities lacked proper sewage treatment, leading to the contamination of water sources. Public health issues, including frequent outbreaks of diseases like cholera and typhoid, were common due to poor sanitation. Efforts to improve sanitation began in the late 18th century, but significant advancements would not occur until the 19th century.

John Burgoyne had several siblings, including two brothers, named William and Charles. He also had a sister named Mary. The Burgoyne family was well-connected, and John was the second of the five children in his family.

In the 1700s, family life in New Jersey was largely agrarian, with most families engaged in farming and subsistence living. Homes were typically simple, often consisting of a one- or two-room structure where family members lived, worked, and slept. Community and extended family ties were strong, as neighbors frequently supported one another through communal activities such as barn raisings or harvests. Life revolved around the seasons, with families participating in local markets and gatherings to strengthen social bonds.

In the 18th century, London's East End became impoverished due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, which drew many rural workers seeking jobs in factories and docks. However, the demand for labor often exceeded the availability of well-paying jobs, leading to high unemployment and low wages. Additionally, poor living conditions, overcrowding, and a lack of social services exacerbated the struggles of the working class, contributing to widespread poverty in the area. This environment of economic hardship was further intensified by rising population and insufficient housing.

Captain James Cook's wife was named Elizabeth Batts. They married on December 21, 1762, and had six children together. Elizabeth played a significant role in supporting Cook during his explorations and expeditions.