Century - 1700s

In 1788, the unemployment rate in Paris is estimated to have been around 25%. This high level of unemployment was exacerbated by economic difficulties, food shortages, and social unrest leading up to the French Revolution. The dire economic conditions contributed to widespread discontent among the populace, ultimately fueling revolutionary sentiments.

During the late 1600s and 1700s, England and France established significant colonies in America. England focused on the eastern coast, founding several colonies that would later form the United States. Meanwhile, France concentrated on areas such as Canada and the Mississippi River Valley, engaging in fur trading and establishing settlements. Both countries played crucial roles in the colonial landscape of North America during this period.

At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, public education underwent significant transformations, particularly with the push for universal education in Europe and America. The Enlightenment ideals emphasized reason and individual potential, leading to increased advocacy for formal schooling and the establishment of public schools. Reforms included the introduction of state-funded education systems, the development of standardized curricula, and a shift towards more secular, inclusive educational practices. This period marked a move away from elitist, church-controlled education towards broader access for children from various social backgrounds.

Captain James Cook played a significant role in the exploration and mapping of the Anchorage area in Alaska during his voyages in the 18th century. He conducted detailed surveys of the coastlines and provided valuable information about the geography and natural resources of the region. Cook's expeditions helped lay the groundwork for future exploration and settlement in Alaska, including the establishment of Anchorage as a key location for trade and transportation. His maps and observations remain important historical references for understanding the area's development.

The realists of the 18th century in Britain faced opposition primarily from the Romantic movement, which emphasized emotion, individualism, and the sublime aspects of nature and human experience. Key figures such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge critiqued the realist focus on reason and empirical observation, advocating instead for a more subjective and imaginative approach to art and literature. This tension between realism and Romanticism highlighted a broader cultural shift towards valuing emotional depth and personal expression over strict adherence to reality.

"Robert Moses: In His Own Words" is a collection of writings and reflections by the influential urban planner Robert Moses. The document includes excerpts from his speeches, interviews, and personal writings, providing insights into his philosophies, motivations, and the impact of his work on urban development in New York City and beyond. It serves as a primary source for understanding Moses's legacy and the complexities of his vision for modern infrastructure and city planning.

The patronage system in the 18th century was a social and political framework where powerful individuals or institutions provided support, often in the form of financial assistance or social status, to artists, writers, and politicians in exchange for loyalty and service. This system allowed patrons to exert influence over cultural production and public life, fostering artistic innovation while simultaneously reinforcing social hierarchies. It was prevalent in Europe, particularly in the realms of art, literature, and politics, and facilitated the careers of many notable figures of the time. Ultimately, the patronage system played a crucial role in shaping cultural and political landscapes during the Enlightenment.

In the 18th century, coopers used a variety of specialized tools to craft barrels, casks, and other wooden containers. Key tools included a cooper's adze for shaping the staves, a drawknife for smoothing the wood, and a bending iron to shape the staves into a circular form. Additionally, they utilized a compasses for measuring, a hammer for assembling, and various types of chisels and planes for fine finishing. These tools allowed coopers to create durable and watertight products essential for storage and transportation.

In the 1700s, Virginia experienced a humid subtropical climate characterized by hot, humid summers and mild winters. Precipitation was relatively evenly distributed throughout the year, supporting agriculture and the growth of tobacco as a cash crop. The region also faced occasional extreme weather events, such as droughts and severe storms, which could impact harvests and daily life. Overall, the climate played a significant role in the development of Virginia's economy and society during this period.

In the 1700s, the northern economy in the American colonies was characterized by a mix of agriculture, commerce, and burgeoning industry. Unlike the southern colonies, which relied heavily on plantation agriculture and slave labor, the North focused on small-scale farming, fishing, and trade. Towns and cities served as commercial hubs, facilitating trade with Europe and other colonies. The period also saw the beginnings of industrialization, with the establishment of mills and workshops that contributed to economic growth.

A large-calibre cast iron cannon developed in the 18th century is typically referred to as a "cannon" or "artillery piece," with notable examples including the "siege cannon" or "culverin." These cannons were designed for long-range bombardment and were cast from iron, allowing for greater durability and firepower. They played a significant role in military engagements of the time, marking advancements in artillery technology and battlefield strategy. Their design and capabilities paved the way for further developments in heavy artillery in subsequent centuries.

Life in Britain in the late 1700s was marked by significant social and economic changes due to the Industrial Revolution. Many people moved from rural areas to urban centers in search of work in factories, leading to overcrowded cities and challenging living conditions. This period also saw the rise of the middle class and changes in social structures, while political movements began advocating for rights and reforms. Additionally, the era was characterized by cultural developments, including literature and the beginnings of the Romantic movement.

Lockyer, a prominent figure in Australian history, primarily lived in the region now known as Queensland. He was notably associated with the area around the Lockyer Valley, which was named in his honor. His explorations and contributions to the region played a significant role in its development during the 19th century.

In 1700, Florida had a subtropical climate characterized by warm temperatures, high humidity, and distinct wet and dry seasons. The state's coastal areas experienced mild winters and hot, humid summers, while the interior regions were typically warmer. Precipitation was abundant, particularly during the summer months, contributing to the lush vegetation and diverse ecosystems that existed at the time. Overall, Florida's climate supported a rich variety of flora and fauna, as well as the indigenous cultures that thrived in the region.

Eighteenth-century ships were primarily made from oak due to its strength, durability, and resistance to rot, making it ideal for shipbuilding. Other types of wood, such as pine and cedar, were also used for various parts of the ship, like masts and decks, due to their lighter weight and workability. The choice of wood often depended on regional availability and the specific requirements of the vessel being built.

John Locke's ideas, particularly his concepts of natural rights and the social contract, posed a threat to 1700s governments by challenging the divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. He argued that governments derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed and that individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property. This notion empowered citizens to question and resist oppressive regimes, potentially inciting revolutions and demands for democratic reforms. As such, Locke's philosophy inspired movements for political change, making it a significant threat to established authorities of the time.

In the 18th century, wigs were primarily made from human hair, horsehair, or goat hair. Wealthier individuals often used human hair for a more luxurious appearance, while those with lesser means might opt for animal hair. Wigs were also sometimes padded with materials like wool or cotton to create volume and elaborate styles. Additionally, they were often powdered with starch to achieve a distinctive white or gray look.

The worldwide Advent Awakening, primarily in the 19th century, was marked by several significant events. Key among these was the Great Disappointment of 1844, when many followers of William Miller expected Christ to return, leading to a crisis in faith for many. The movement also saw the formation of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in 1863, which emphasized the observance of the Sabbath and the imminent return of Christ. Additionally, the spread of Adventist beliefs through missionary work and publications helped solidify its global presence.

The Mughal Empire weakened during the 1700s due to a combination of factors, including internal strife, ineffective leadership, and economic decline. The empire faced increasing regional autonomy as local rulers and governors asserted their power, leading to fragmentation. Additionally, external pressures from emerging European powers, particularly the British, further destabilized the empire. This decline culminated in the loss of control over territories and resources, ultimately paving the way for colonial domination.

Six important Loyalists during the 1700s included Joseph Galloway, a prominent politician and member of the Continental Congress; Sir John Johnson, a landowner and military leader; William Franklin, a loyalist leader and son of Benjamin Franklin; Thomas Hutchinson, the last colonial governor of Massachusetts; Edward W. W. Little, a notable Loyalist in New Jersey; and Lydia Baillie, an influential figure in Loyalist circles. These individuals played significant roles in supporting the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War.

An important goal of European mercantilism during the 1600s and 1700s was to increase national wealth and power through a favorable balance of trade. This involved maximizing exports while minimizing imports, ensuring that colonies provided raw materials to the mother country and served as markets for finished goods. Mercantilist policies also aimed to accumulate precious metals, such as gold and silver, to strengthen national economies and assert dominance in global trade. Ultimately, this system sought to enhance national security and influence by controlling economic resources.

By the 18th century, several areas in Europe had not become unified nations under a single ruler. Notably, the Italian Peninsula consisted of various independent states, such as the Papal States, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan. Similarly, the German territories were fragmented into numerous principalities, duchies, and free cities, collectively known as the Holy Roman Empire. Additionally, the region of the Balkans was characterized by a patchwork of ethnic groups and political entities, many of which were under Ottoman control.

In the 18th century, white people were often considered more important than black individuals due to systemic racism and colonialism that reinforced social hierarchies. Enslavement and the exploitation of Black people were prevalent, particularly in the Americas, where they were denied basic human rights and freedoms. This societal structure was justified by pseudoscientific beliefs in racial superiority, leading to widespread discrimination and oppression that favored white people in terms of power, wealth, and social status.

In the Legislative Assembly during the French Revolution, the radicals sat on the left side. This group, known as the Montagnards or Jacobins, advocated for more extreme measures and significant changes in governance, including the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Their position on the left symbolized their revolutionary ideals and commitment to social and political reform.

The 13 colonies were largely prevented from moving west in the 1700s due to British colonial policies and treaties, particularly the Proclamation of 1763, which restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid conflicts with Native American tribes. Additionally, the British government aimed to control westward expansion to manage trade and maintain peace with Indigenous peoples. Economic factors and the challenging terrain also played a role in limiting westward migration.