Nuclear Physics

Nuclear fusion occurs when two nuclei fuse together. This is frequently nuclei of deuterium and tritium (both hydrogen isotopes), which form a helium nucleus plus a neutron.

An atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons bound together by the strong nuclear force. It is positively charged due to the protons it contains. The nucleus is extremely dense and makes up the majority of an atom's mass.

The half-life of the radioisotope tritium (H-3) is about 12.32 years. This means that it takes approximately 12.32 years for half of a sample of tritium to decay into helium-3.

The half-life of the radioisotope Ba-137 is approximately 11.23 minutes. This means that it takes 11.23 minutes for half of a sample of Ba-137 to decay into a more stable element.

The half-life of the radioisotope Ag-110 is approximately 24.6 seconds. This means that half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of Ag-110 will undergo radioactive decay in that amount of time.

The half-life of the radioisotope Bismuth-210 (Bi-210) is approximately 5.01 days. This means that it takes about 5.01 days for half of a sample of Bi-210 to decay into its decay products.

In nuclear fusion, elements are created by combining two lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. This process releases a large amount of energy. Elements found in nuclear fusion reactions typically include hydrogen isotopes like deuterium and tritium.

This is done in fast breeder reactors. Uranium-238 is put into the operating reactor where it is exposed to the neutron flux. When 238U captures a fast neutron (a high energy one - not one that has been slowed down or thermalized), it transforms into 239Pu through the intermediate step of 239U and 239Np. U-238 (non-fissile) + n -> U-239 -> Np-239 -> Pu-239 (fissile)

The halflife of 235U is 704 million years. 1420 million years is approximately two halflives, so about 24.7% would be remaining.

The atom that decays leaves emits some radiation, and leaves behind another type of atom (or atoms), with less mass (the mass of the original atom, minus the mass that left the atom).

There are several common types of radioactive decay. In alpha decay, an alpha particle is emitted. This is two protons and two neutrons bound together. In beta decay an electron or positron is emitted. Excited nuclei may shed their excess energy by emitting a neutral gamma ray. Some nuclei even emit neutrons (the fission products in a nuclear reactor are especially prone to this). And sometimes the nucleus may grab an orbiting electron in "K-capture".

Some of these events alter the nucleus's charge thus changing it into a different chemical element. In addition, the proton-to-neutron balance may be changed enough to make the new nucleus unstable so it decays again. In most cases the decay leaves the nucleus in an excited state which may destabilise it resulting in further decay too. It is not uncommon for a material to decay through several generations at hugely different rates.

But eventually the nucleus settles down as a different chemical element, the orbiting electrons re-shuffle and, well, that's it. The substance therefore changes into another one. Since the processes are very specific for every isotope, the composition of an old rock, for example, can give us complete information about what was in it a thousand, a million, a billion years ago.

The highest ever detected on the earth's surface is the EM radiation emitted from

the radio transmitters on top of the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur and

from the TV transmitters on the Willis (Sears) Tower in Chicago.

(Air-to-ground communication, transponder, and radar signals emitted from

commercial aircraft in flight are judged in a different category.)

Light elements (such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium) are predicted to have stable nuclei when the ratio of neutrons to protons falls within a certain range. This range is known as the "valley of stability" on the nuclear binding energy curve. Nuclei that lie within this valley are less likely to undergo radioactive decay.

Thallium 204 turns into lead.

Anode rays are also known as canal rays because they were discovered to be positively charged particles produced in a cathode tube when the cathode rays strike a gas at low pressure. The particles travel in the opposite direction of cathode rays and move towards the anode or positive electrode, hence the name "anode rays."

A nuclear reactor requires the neutrons released from one reaction to trigger the fission of other nuclei. Control rods are required to absorb some of these neutrons so as to prevent a runaway chain reaction.

This means that the nuclear material is of a high enough concentration to fissile (allow for a fission chain reaction). This is because Uranium comes naturally as 99.3% U238, which cannot sustain fission, and .7% U235, which is what they want for the fuel. So they have to find away to pull away the U238 and leave the U235. As they concentrate the U235, it becomes concentrated enough so that it can sustain fission (too much U238 bogs down the reaction and will eventually end the fission). When it reaches this point of concentration, it is concidered reactor grade. Different elements have different needed concentrations to reach this level.

A reactor in a welder is used to control the voltage and current output of the welding machine. It helps regulate the amount of electricity flowing through the welding circuit, which is essential for producing consistent and high-quality welds.

In the liquid drop model, excitation energy in a nucleus gives rides to modes of motion or oscillations. On a potential energy surface, the saddle point corresponds to the critical deformation of unstable equilibrium in the nucleus.

If there is no radioactivity, it implies that no radioactive decay or nuclear processes are occurring. While this may be positive from a safety perspective, it also means that certain medical treatments, radiation therapy, and certain industrial processes that rely on radioactivity would not be possible. Additionally, our understanding of nuclear physics and certain natural phenomena would be limited.

The derivation of the equation needed to answer your question is a bit intense, so I'm going to skip it and just write down the result:

∆tE/√[1 - (3GMi/ri)/c2 - v2/c2] = ∆tM.

∆tE is the elapsed time of an atomic clock on Earth.

∆tM is the elapsed time of an atomic clock on the Moon.

G is the gravitational constant = 6.67428 X 10-11 m3/(kg s2)

c is the speed of light in a vacuum = 299,792,458 m/s

v is the average orbital speed of the Moon = 1022 m/s

Mi and ri are the sums of the masses and radial distances, respectively, of all of the objects with a gravitational influence on the moon. In this answer, I'm going to approximate these two values by only considering the masses and radial distances for the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. Because of this approximation, the value for ∆tM that I'm going to list below will a bit lower than the actual value.

So, after plugging in all of the numbers into the above equation, with ∆tE = 4 billion years, the value for ∆tM is 4000000059.5 years. So the atomic clocks would be about 59.5 years apart.

Proton = 1

Neutron = 1

Electron = 0.00054

J mesons are subatomic particles that do not experience a melting phase transition like larger particles or materials. As such, they do not require energy to melt as they do not solidify.

Nanometer is 10-9 meter, in other words, a unit of length.