Popes

Pope Pius X - as Pope, Joseph Melchiorre Sarto, was very much a traditionalist and sort to retrench from the modernist trends in Catholic doctrine in the early 20th century. After his death he was canonised as Saint Pius X - his feast day was originally set as September 3 before being moved by Pope John Paul II.

He was the sone of Lorenzo de' Medici and Clarice Orsini.

Jesus is, of course, the rock, the foundation of the Church. However, in John 1:42, Jesus changes the Apostle Simon's name to Cephas, or Peter, a name which means "Rock". Now we know from scripture that Jesus is the Rock, or Cornerstone (1 Corinthians 10:4). Therefore, it can be assumed from this name change that Jesus is handing on to Peter what He Himself is, Rock. Once Christ ascended into Heaven, Peter became the new rock, foundation or earthly leader of the Church.

1309 to 1377

The pope communicates the will of God.

He is God's highest servant among mankind.

According to Catholics, at least.

Pope Celestine III died on January 8th of that year and was succeeded by Pope Innocent III that same day.

If you are talking about the movie, no. If you are talking about real life, again, no.

The ambassadors of the Vatican to other countries are usually called nuncios.

The six highest ranks of diplomatic representatives of the Vatican are:

legatus a latere

nuncio with full powers of a legatus a latere

legate

nuncio of the first class

nuncio of the second class

internuncio

I am sure there are many popes in Heaven but am equally sure that there are a number of popes burning in hell.

The Julian calendar based on the Roman calendar that had been in use for over 1500 years was not correct. In the Julian calendar a year was 365.25 days (365 days 6 hours) but should have been 365.2425 days (365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 12 seconds). The spring equinox occurs on/about March 21 but under the Julian calendar it had gradually moved back to on/about March 11. Since the date for Easter was dependent upon the equinox, it, too, was out of sync. Gregory dropped those ten days and moved the date back to March 21 and readjusted the calendar's leap years based on the new calculations. The reform was made in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.

In 1891 Pope Leo XIII wrote an encyclical, or letter addresed to the world (through the bishops), defending the rights of the working man, especially his right to organize labor unions. This happened at a time when working men were trying to obtain a balance of power with their employers. The encyclical took a middle ground between unregulated capitalism on one side and socialism (the government controlling the means of production) on the other side. Encyclicals are identified by the first two or three words of the Latin text, but it is hard to translate these two words without finding the whole first sentence in Latin and in an English translation. (I don't have the text at hand.)

Gregory The Great was born in September 3, c.590 and died on march 12, 604. He was a pope from 3 September intill his death. He is considered a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.

Its not a greeting per se. Its the sign of the cross which the pope uses for example to bless people gathered for a mass.

No. The first pope to carry that title was an anti-pope.

The Crusades weakened

the feudal nobility and increased the power of kings.

Pope Siricius who ruled from December 11, 384, to November 26, 399.

Mozzetta - a shoulder cape that has a collar and is buttoned all the way down the front. The red color is a vestige from the days when scarlet was the Papal color (white only became associated with the papacy after the Napoleonic wars). The Papal mozzetta had a small hood on the back, which disappeared after Vatican II but has recently been restored. In wintertime, the Papal mozzetta is of red velvet trimmed with ermine (this also fell out of use after Vatican II, but Pope Benedict XVI began again to wear a winter mozzetta trimmed in ermine fur). In summer, the Papal mozzetta is of red satin.

Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Emperor Henry because of a disagreement on who had the right to appoint church officials. This all started because Gregory issued a decree saying that bishops will no longer be chosen by anyone other than the church. A revolution then rose because Pope Gregory told Henry's vassals that they no longer needed to support or follow him. With no one following him he was forced to apologize however when he attempted to apologize Pope Gregory left Henry standing out in the snow for 3 days. He finally agreed to see him and things returned to normal for a while. Until Henry gained enough support and was strong enough in power that he defied the pope and was again excommunicated however this time he set up a anti-pope and went to Rome where he beseiged Gregory. After 3 years Henry received the crown from his own Pope. Gregory then fled to Salereno where he died. He never removed Henry's ban from the church though. When Henry died it wasnt until 5 years later that the ban was removed and his bones were moved to consecrated ground.

There is no real chief of staff by that title. There is, however, a camarlengo who assists the pope and takes over most of the popes administrative duties should the pope die. The current Camerlengo to Pope Francis (2014) is Jean-Louis Tauran.

Yes, the Byzantine Rite is part of the Catholic Church and recognizes the leadership of the pope.

Pope John Paul I reigned only 33 days.

Yes, it was the Holy City to the christians and catholics and they sieged the city to retake the church when the Muslims tried to change the religion to Orthodox instead of Catholic. This started crusades which were made to expand the Catholic beliefs.

The camerlengo takes the place of the pope if he dies as the acting head of state of Vatican City. The College of Cardinals is in charge of Church affairs during the period between the death of the pope and the election of a new one.