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The Difference Between
Ever wanted to know the difference between a boysenberry and a blueberry? socialism and communism? Windows and Linux? Look no further. This category answers your questions about 'The Differences Between...'
57,566 Questions
What is the difference between a biological mother and a surrogate?
A biological mother contributes the actual egg cell and maternal DNA of a child, so the child gets half its chromosomes from the biological mother, with the other half coming from the father. A surrogate carries the child in her womb but does not contribute any sex cells or genetic material. This is usually done if a woman who wants children is has viable egg cells but for some reason cannot carry a pregnancy or give birth.
What is the major difference between intrusive rocks and extrusive igneous rocks?
The major difference is their formation location: intrusive rocks are formed below the Earth's surface from the slow cooling of magma, resulting in coarse-grained textures, while extrusive rocks are formed on the Earth's surface from rapid cooling of lava, resulting in fine-grained textures. Intrusive rocks have larger mineral grains due to their slower cooling process, whereas extrusive rocks have smaller mineral grains due to their faster cooling process.
What is the difference between branch and stem?
A branch is a smaller division of a plant's main structure, often bearing leaves or flowers, while a stem is the main axis of a plant that supports buds, leaves, and flowers. Stems also transport water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant.
Diplospory is a type of asexual reproduction in plants where a diploid embryo sac is formed without meiosis, resulting in seeds with embryos that are genetically identical to the parent plant. This process skips the formation of haploid gametes.
What are the difference between bacterisidal and bactereostatis?
bacteriostatic antibacterial agents are these that inhibits the growth of bacteria usually by inhibition of protein synthesis.
Bacterisidal antibacterial agents are these that cause apoptosis( brake down) of bacteria due to braking down the bacterial cell wall or membrane.
How are natural hazards and environmental hazards different?
good Q:
natural hazards are hazards that are caused by things in nature e.i. an earthquake happens and causes a nuclear power plant to explode (japan) an environmental hazard on the other hand is something cause by people that affect the environment (pollution affecting major cities e.i. new york, Chicago, and Miami ect...)
What is the difference between cyst bleeding and your period?
Cyst bleeding typically occurs due to ruptured or bleeding ovarian cysts, resulting in sharp or sudden pain localized to one side of the abdomen. Menstrual bleeding, on the other hand, is the shedding of the uterine lining in response to hormonal changes, causing regular monthly bleeding that lasts several days. It is important to consult a healthcare provider to differentiate between the two and receive appropriate treatment.
What is the difference between osmoregulation and excretion?
Osmoregulation is the maintenance of the amounts of water and salts in body fluids. Excretion is a process of homeostasis. In this process,nthe metabolic wastes are eliminated from body to maintain the internal conditions at equilibrium.
What is the difference between earth's hottest and coldest temperature?
The diffrence is that it when its a hot climate then it dosent use a negative sign for example 12 but if it is a verry cold climate then it uses the sign like this -12. Also if you would like to research more information just google hot climates and cold climates and get inforamation for that.
What is the difference between foliation and lineation?
Both foliation and lineations features of deformation in rocks. Lineations however are indicatives of the presence of foliation but lineation is a planar stucture measured in therms of dip and strike, meanwhile lieations are measured in terms of plunge and direction. The dip is the angle a foliation makes with the horizontal, it is a measure of the inclination of the foliation. Strike however measured right angled to the dip, it is a measure of the general trend of the surface fo the foliation (season why leation cannot be measured in terms of strike, because it is simply a lineation and thus has no surface trend). The plunge also is the angle a lineation makes with the horizontal. It is similar to dip in that it also a measure of inclination but different but unlike dip it tells us nothing about the direction of the lineation. This is why direction comes as a supplementary measure of lineation.
vjacq@yahoo.com
I think there is some stuff mixed up in the above answer. Foliations are planes, Lineations are lines.
Foliations have Strike and Dip
Lineations have Trend and Plunge
Foliations form as a result of compression or shearing and form perpendicular to resulting compression (planes will be closer to the direction of extension - imagine squeezing a ball of soft material and see which way it stretches). Some of the most common foliations are in folds, at the axial hinge of a fold, the foliation tends to be the same as the axial plane, but moving away from the centre of the fold the foliations tend to lay away from the plane - this depends on competency of rock holding the folds. In the field it can be easy to confuse bedding planes with foliations - you may have to question what it is that distinguishes the layers to decide if it's a bed or foliation. Often a foliation plane has no distinguishing features between layers (until it starts developing schistosity and banding)
There are many types of lineations: Striations, stretching lineations, intersection linetions. In the field they are a line on a rock, not a plane.
Stretching lineations (usually what you are looking for) are basically the result of a crystal (or set of crystals) being stretched in a ductile environment (so basically you've got a blob of material that's been stretched out)
Intersection Lineations: The line that is produced where bedding planes (sedimentary material) intersect with foliation planes. At the axial hinge of fold the foliations and beds are usually perpendicular (90 degrees) to each other.
Striations: Usually a brittle feature, is basically scratch marks of one rock moving on another, can be formed by glaciers or sometimes in faults. Displays a sense of movement.
Pigs have a specialized snout with a heavy layer of muscle, ideal for rooting in the ground to find food. In contrast, humans have lips and cheeks that help with speech and eating. These differences are due to the unique evolutionary adaptations that have shaped the anatomy of pigs for their specific foraging behaviors, while humans have evolved different structures to support our diverse diet and communication needs.
What are the differences between sleet and rain?
Freezing rain is possible on Sunday as a dynamic winter storm enters the state's atmosphere. Snow and rain are widely understood forms of precipitation, but often times freezing rain and sleet have people confused as to what they are and what makes them different. Between the two, freezing rain is considered as the more dangerous because it often immediately leads to very slippery roadways. It can also begin to build up as ice on power lines and tree limbs. During periods of heavy icing, freezing rain is often blamed for power outages. Sleet can also yield slick roadways, but often accumulates much in the way snow does. Interestingly, the term sleet is used almost exclusively in the United States. More often in the rest of the world sleet is referred to as what it actually is: ice pellets. Freezing rain falls in the atmosphere as a liquid. It freezes only when it comes in contact with surfaces that are at or below freezing. When freezing rain occurs, an ice glaze can develop easily on any surface it touches. In many cases, that would be roads and sidewalks and is one reason why bridges and overpasses can become so dangerous when freezing rain threatens. Sleet falls in the atmosphere as a solid pellet of ice. That is why it is commonly referred to as ice pellets. The precipitation is in a totally frozen solid state as it travels through the air, and when it hits the ground. Though it may melt after hitting the Earth's surface and re-freeze, that would be after the fact, and what separates it from freezing rain.
What is the difference between salt solution and calamine lotion?
Salt solution is a mixture of salt dissolved in water, often used for cleaning wounds and as a nasal rinse. Calamine lotion is a medication used topically to relieve itching and skin irritation, such as in cases of poison ivy or insect bites. Salt solution is mainly saline water, while calamine lotion contains zinc oxide and iron oxide.
What is the difference between working principle of XRF and XRD?
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
BRUKER AXS, INC.
5465 EAST ChERYL pARKwAY
MADISON, wI 53711-5373
USA
TEL. (+1) (800) 234-XRAY
TEL. (+1) (608) 276-3000
FAX (+1) (608) 276-3006
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.com
www.bruker-axs.com
All configurations and specifications are subject to change without notice. Order No. L88-E00058. © 2006 BRUKER AXS GmbH. Printed in Germany.
BRUKER AXS GMBh
OESTLIChE RhEINBRUECKENSTR. 49
D-76187 KARLSRUhE
GERMANY
TEL. (+49) (0)(721)595-2888
FAX (+49) (0)(721)595-4587
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.de
www.bruker-axs.de
BRUKER AXS K.K
3-9-A, MORIYA, KANAGAwA
YOKOhAMA, KANAGAwA 221-0022
JApAN
TEL. (+81) 45 453 1963
FAX (+81) 45 440 0757
www.bruker-axs.com
3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
BRUKER AXS, INC.
5465 EAST ChERYL pARKwAY
MADISON, wI 53711-5373
USA
TEL. (+1) (800) 234-XRAY
TEL. (+1) (608) 276-3000
FAX (+1) (608) 276-3006
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.com
www.bruker-axs.com
All configurations and specifications are subject to change without notice. Order No. L88-E00058. © 2006 BRUKER AXS GmbH. Printed in Germany.
BRUKER AXS GMBh
OESTLIChE RhEINBRUECKENSTR. 49
D-76187 KARLSRUhE
GERMANY
TEL. (+49) (0)(721)595-2888
FAX (+49) (0)(721)595-4587
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.de
www.bruker-axs.de
BRUKER AXS K.K
3-9-A, MORIYA, KANAGAwA
YOKOhAMA, KANAGAwA 221-0022
JApAN
TEL. (+81) 45 453 1963
FAX (+81) 45 440 0757
www.bruker-axs.com
3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
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3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD- provides most direct analytical methol for determining presence and absolute amounts of minerals species in sample. XRD can also identify phases
XRF- provides direct information about chemical composition but cannot deliver direct phase information. Mass-balance calculations can be deducted but may lead to useless results in the presence of a polymorph.
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