Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics

Photosynthesis is an open system because energy enters the system and mass both enters and leaves the system. In very general terms photosynthesis is:

carbon dioxide + water + light ==> oxygen + plant growth

The exact process is a bit more complex, but the gist of it is that it is open because both mass and energy cross the boundaries of the system if the system is identified as the plant.

A major part of the heat transfer through a cavity wall lacking insulation is convection - and to a lesser degree radiation. When insulation is placed in the cavity between the walls it significantly reduces both convection (air doesn't move well through insulation like it does in empty space) and radition (the walls can't "see" each other through the insulation). For the insulation to be effective, the thermal conductivity of the material must be low enough that conduction through the insulation is much less than was present with convection.

The membrane serves as both an insulator and a diffusion barrier to the movement of ions. Ion transporter/pump proteins actively push ions across the membrane to establish concentration gradients across the membrane, and ion channels allow ions to move across the membrane down those concentration gradients,

The steam tables have 16 columns as follows:

pressure (absolute), temperature, specific volume of vapor, specific volume of liquid, heat of the liquid, heat of vaporization, total heat of the vapor, entropy of the liquid, entropy of vaporization, entropy of the vapor, internal heat of the liquid, internal heat of vaporization, and internal heat of the vapor (occasionally the external heat of the liquid, vaporization and vapor are included)

If the temperature and pressure of steam are known then cross referencing the heat or the volume of a known quantity of the steam can be done.

the heat content(enthalpy) of the liquid or vapor can be extrapolated from the chart, as can the entropy and internal energy. The enthalpy less the internal energy = the external energy (or the actual energy required to expand the liquid to a vapor)

By determining the starting heat content of steam and final or exhaust heat content of steam the efficiency of a steam engine can be determined. Along with these calculations are the determinations of heat losses, steam quality, loss to entropy,...etc. all calculated using various instruments and the steam tables.

To decrease the entropy of a static body, you would need to decrease the disorder or randomness of its particles. This can be achieved by cooling the body, which can lower the thermal motion of its particles and reduce their entropy. Other methods include applying pressure to order the particles or removing impurities that contribute to disorder.

Assuming that the surroundings are above the freezing point of water - yes - it is normal for the temperature on the thermometer to go up. It may still remain elevated even if plunged back into the ice bath since the thermometer has mass and can absorb some energy while out of the bath. There is also the phenomena that in some thermometers even when the temperature drops, the thermometer fluid sometimes remains elevated unless you "shake down" the thermometer.

A bimetallic bar has two different metals bound together. Different metals have different coefficients of thermal expansion. As the temperature changes, the metals will expand or contract different amounts - consequently the bar will curve on the side of the one that expands the least or contracts the most (depending on whether it is warming up or cooling down).

This question does not provide enough information on the relevant parameters to even attempt an answer. One would assume that if the hole is at the bottom of the container (and not on the side at the bottom) and the liquid is coming out of the hole only due to gravity that the the container would remain stationary. If there is internal pressure in the container, then the initial pressure becomes important as does the time since the water began to flow. If the hole is on the side of the container, then friction between the container and the surface it is resting on become significant. If the container is not circular in cross section, then the location of the hole along the side helps determine whether the container moves laterally or spins.

Non-adiabatic dynamics refers to a type of molecular or atomic motion in which the energy levels of the relevant electronic states change quickly relative to the nuclear motion. This leads to a breakdown of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, where the motion of electrons and nuclei are treated separately. In non-adiabatic dynamics, the motion of both electrons and nuclei must be considered simultaneously, making it a more complex and computationally challenging problem.

Starting from the same temperature and for the same amount of heat input, aluminum would wind up with a higher temperature than water because water has a higher heat capacity (it takes more energy to raise its temperature) than aluminum.

Entropy is defined by the equation:

dS = δQ/T

where

S is entropy

("d" and δ are mathematical symbols for differential quantities)

Q has units of energy - such as Joules

T has units of thermodynamic temperature - such as K

Since Joules are generally considered the SI unit for energy and K is the SI unit for temperature, entropy will therefore have units of J/K or J∙K-1 if you want to use SI units. It could just as legitimately be given in calories/K or BTU/°R since both of those have units of energy divided by thermodynamic temperature.

The constancy of the value of the product of pressure and volume for a closed system (PV) at constant temperature is useful in establishing a definition of temperature and allows the extrapolation of the temperature scale to a thermodynamic "absolute zero".

Compression ratio (CR) is the total volume of a cylinder at BDC (bottom dead center) divided by total volume of space at TDC (top dead center).

To increase CR, you must either increase the total volume of displacement, or decrease the volume at TDC. This can be achieved by shaving the heads, increasing the bore, or increasing the stroke.

Provided there is room for valve clearance, shaving the heads is the simplest method.

No, a bonfire will not explode a watermelon via pressure. Watermelons can explode due to heat causing the water inside to turn to steam and increase the pressure, but a bonfire alone may not generate enough heat to cause this reaction.

To convert volume to weight, you need to know the density of the substance in question. The formula is Weight = Volume x Density. First, find the density of the material, then multiply it by the volume to get the weight.

A system should be in thermal equilibrium when it has a homogeneous temperature throughout, mechanical equilibrium when there is no net force acting on it, and chemical equilibrium when there are no gradients in chemical potential.

To answer the question would require knowledge of several variables that are not specified in the question - to wit:

Is "1 km" the diameter, radius, or circumference of the sphere?

What is the initial temperature of the sphere?

Is the sphere in contact with other matter or is it in a vacuum?

Is the sphere under pressure?

Does evaporation have to be accounted for?

If it is in contact with some other solid, liquid, gas, plasma, etc - what are the physical properties of the material(s) it is in contact with?

Is it radiating to a black body?

Is there any source of energy radiating back to the sphere?

Is the sphere in motion or stationary?

Is the sphere subject to any external fields such as magnetic fields?

I'm sure we could identify even more unspecified variables that would impact the answer, but the point is that the question cannot be answered without more information.

The heat supplied to a system can increase its internal energy if no work is extracted from the system. If any work is done by the system, then the increase in internal energy will be less than the heat supplied to the system.

The thermodynamic variable defined by the zeroeth law is Temperature.

The helical shape of a bi-metallic thermometer helps to amplify the movement of the jointed bi-metallic strip when temperature changes occur. This allows for a more accurate and visible indication of temperature fluctuations by increasing the sensitivity of the thermometer. Additionally, the helical shape provides support and protection to the delicate mechanism inside the thermometer.

Any kind of material that is even colder than the cold air will heat up. Materials that will react with the air in exothermic reactions will also heat up. An example would be those little packages you can buy that have a bunch of finely ground iron powder that when you break the seal, the iron starts oxidizing - which is an exothermic reaction - and can do a nice job of warming up your hands or feet if you stick it in your gloves or boots for a while.

Strictly speaking objects do not contain "heat". Heat is energy in transit - think of it as an analog to water compared to rain. Rain is water in transit from the clouds to the ground. Once it lands and starts to form puddles, rivers, streams, etc, we no longer call it rain. Likewise, when energy is being held in an object we do not call it heat. It only becomes HEAT when in transit from that object to another object.

What the question is probably trying to ask is about the relationship between the mass of an object and the enthalpy (or alternatively internal energy). As energy (such as heat) is added to an object, it gets warmer and the enthalpy increases. If it comes in contact with something cooler, it can transfer some of that energy in the form of heat, but the temperature can also be changed by doing work on the object or subjecting to friction. One property of any object is its "heat capacity" which is measured in terms of the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of the object by a certain amount. Usually this is identified in terms of the "specific heat" - the energy per unit mass per degree of temperature. As an example, the specific heat of liquid water is about 1 BTU per lbm per °F or 1 calorie per gram per °C at room temperature.

The enthalpy of an object is thus related to the mass of the object via the specific heat.

Note that enthalpy must always be measured relative to a reference point. It is what is known as a "state function". Typically the enthalpy is tabulated relative to a reference state of "standard temperature and pressure".

Some technology areas associated with a portable cooler could include thermoelectric cooling technology, energy-efficient compressors, smart temperature control systems, and lightweight, durable materials for construction.

To break the vacuum seal, you can carefully pour cold water over the lid or place the pot in a shallow pan of cold water. The sudden change in temperature will cause the seal to break, allowing you to easily lift the lid off. Be cautious of any hot steam that may be released during this process.