In project architecture and civil
engineering, construction is the building or assembly of any infrastructure on a site or sites. Although this may not be thought of as a single activity, in fact construction is a feat of multitasking. Normally the
job is managed by the construction manager and supervised by the project manager, design engineer or project architect.
For the successful execution of a project,
effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the
infrastructure in question must consider the environmental impact of the
job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, site
safety, availability of materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays, preparing tender documents, etc.
Types of construction projects
In general, there are three types of construction:
- Building construction
- Heavy/highway construction
- Industrial construction
Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct, and maintain the project.
Building construction
Building construction for several apartment blocks. The blue material is
insulation
cladding, which will be covered later.
A large unfinished building.
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast
majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often,
the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction
projects include some elements in common - design, financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach
undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigatios reason, those with experience in the field
make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.
Building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including hard bid,
negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build
bridging.
Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building. There are many different
methods of construction procurement; however the three main types of procurement are:[citation needed]
- Traditional
- Design and Build
- Management Contracting
Traditional
This is the most common method of construction procurement; is well established and recognised throughout. Here, the Architect
or Building Surveyor usually acts as the project Manager. His or her role will be to administer the contract, prepare the
specification, tender the works and manage the works from inception to completion. There are direct contractual links between the
client and the main contractor. Any subcontractor will have a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor. There is
no direct contract with the client. This means there is only one point of contact on the contractual side and a single point of
responsibility.
Design and build
This is probably the second most common method of construction procurement and one that can include an entire completed
package such as fixtures and fittings and equipment where necessary, to produce a completed fully functional building. In some
cases, the Design and Build (D & B) package can also include to find the site, arranging funding and applying for all
necessary statutory consents.
The client will produce a list of ‘clients requirements’ for a project, for which the D & B contractor will translate into
a set of ‘contactors proposals’. The latter will then be altered and adapted until the client is satisfied that the D & B
contractor knows exactly what the client wants from his or her completed building.
D & B is usually used for less complicated projects such as office or industrial buildings, although it has been known to
have been used successfully on some more complicated projects.
The advantages D & B has over some other methods of construction procurement is that it can lead to decrease design and
construction costs and a reduction in the overall project time. Projects procured by this method have a better chance of being
completed on time and within budget.
However disadvantages often include blandness of a design, client’s expectations not being met, and poorer technical ability
of the D & B contractor and, in some cases, inflexibility of the design.
The client has a direct contractual relationship with the D & B contractor but can also have a direct contractual
relationship with the architectural if input is required in this regard as an additional service.
Management procurement systems
Here, unlike the other two roles briefly described above, the client plays an active role in the procurement system by
entering into separate contracts with the Designer, the Construction Manager and individual work contractors. The client takes on
the active roles of managing all these separate contracts, ensuring that they all work smoothly and effectively together. Because
the client is involved in key decision making processes he or she must retain complete control over the works at all times.
Sometimes a Project Manager is employed to aid the client.
Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes, allow the client greater flexibility in
design variation throughout the contract, the ability to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility
on each individual throughout the contract and a greater client control.
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Construction marketing
Due to increased competition, privatisation and globalisation, marketing and business development have become increasingly
important functions in all construction organisations. Marketing research, corporate branding and public relations are
increasingly been seen as vital in a marketplace typified by sophisticated and demanding clients and customers, and a socially
and environmentally aware general public and media. The work of Dr Chris Preece [1] in the UK has focused on how construction organisations in all sectors of the
Industry can improve their marketing and business development skills, given new procurement routes, partnering work and private
financing initiatives world-wide.
Residential construction
More and more families are looking into building their own homes, or contracting to have them built. Construction practices,
technologies, and resources conform to state and local building codes.
Heavy/Highway construction
Heavy/highway construction is the process adding infrastructure to our built
environment. Owners of these projects are usually government agencies, either at the national or local level. As in building
construction, heavy/highway construction has design, financial, and legal considerations, however these projects are not usually
undertaken for-profit, but to service the public interest. However, heavy/highway construction projects are also undertaken by
large private corporations, including, among others, the golf courses, harbors, power companies, railroads, and mines, who
undertake the construction of access roads, dams, railroads, general site grading, and massive earthwork projects. As in building
construction, the owner will assemble a team to create an overall plan to ensure that the goals of the project are met.
Authority having jurisdiction
In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or subagency which regulates the
construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality in which the building is
located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority,
which becomes the AHJ.
During the planning of a building, the zoning and planning
boards of the AHJ will review the overall compliance of the proposed building with the municipal General Plan and zoning regulations. Once the proposed building has been approved, detailed civil,
architectural, and structural plans must be submitted to the municipal building department (and sometimes the public works
department) to determine compliance with the building code and sometimes for fit with
existing infrastructure. Often, the municipal fire department will review the plans for compliance with fire-safety ordinances
and regulations.
Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to notify utility companies, either directly or through a
company such as Dig Safe to ensure that underground utility lines can be marked. This
lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause
outages and potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector inspects
the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete and a final inspection has been passed, an
occupancy permit may be issued.
An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code
is enforced by the local fire department.
Any changes made to a building including its use, expansion, its structural integrity, and fire protection items, require acceptance by the AHJ. Anything affecting basic safety functions, no
matter how small they may appear, may require the owner to apply for a building permit, to ensure proper review of the
contemplated changes against the building code.
Routes into construction careers
There are several routes to the different careers within the construction industry.
Craft industries offer jobs where employees train while they
work through apprenticeships and other training
schemes.
Technical occupations in the UK require
GCSE qualifications or vocational equivalents, either initially or through on the job apprenticeship training. One example is that of Quantity Surveying. Quantity Surveyors are effectively cost managers within
the construction industry and may be: (1) employed by Chartered Surveyor practices (referred to often as "PQS" derived from the
term Private Quantity Surveyor) who normally represent the client's interest and liaise with the Architect on the client's team,
preparing cost plans, preparing tender documentation, giving cost advice on variations, preparing monthly valuation payments to
the contractor, agreeing the final account with the contractor, generally looking after the client's interests (although the role
can be referred to within some standard forms of contract as being a neutral role to value 'the' costs of the project), in
practice it tends to be looking after the client's interests primarily; or (2) employed by Main Contractors, in which role they
manage the contractor's costs, place subcontract orders, make payments to subcontractors, claim monthly valuations from the
client's surveyor (Private QS or "PQS"), cost manage variations, prepare internal cost reports to senior management and
directors, generally managing the project commercially and protect the contractor's interests contractually. Contractual aspects
such as delays and extensions of time issues are also within the remit of the Quantity Surveyor (QS); or (3) employed by
Subcontractors, in which role they carry out a similar function to Main Contractor's QS's. The main difference is that they are
normally submitting monthly valuation claims for payment to the Main Contractor, whereas the Manin Contractor claims from the
client's Surveyor (usually a Chartered Surveyor practice or Private QS "PQS"). Large subcontractors may also employ
sub-subcontractors, thereby making the QS role similar in the cost management role, including placing sub-contract orders (to
sub-subcontractors), valuing and claiming variations, preparing cost reports to senior management, etc; or (4) employed by Local
Authorities (local Councils, etc), whereby the role is broadly similar to that of private practice surveyors in cost managing
project from the funding client's perspective (in this case the Local Authority council within which they are employed), dealing
usually with main contractors; or (5) employed by Developers; whereby the role may be a mixture of the role of a client's
surveyor (the funding client being the developer in this case) mixed with that of a main contractor in possibly employing package
sub-contractors directly Other information: The most recognised body for surveyors in construction is the Royal Institution of
Chartered Surveyors (the 'RICS'). It is more common for a private practice surveyor or local authority employed surveyor to be a
member of the RICS, though RICS qualified surveyors do work within main contractors and sub-contractors (the writer of this
Quantity Surveyor segment qualified RICS within private practice working on the client's side, then migrated over to work for a
large sub-contractor. Such cross-overs are quite common between client's side and contracting). Quantity Surveying offers a great
diversity of roles and in career path, working on a variety of projects and within different areas and facets of the construction
industry. The qualification of "Chartered Quantity Surveyor" has been superseded as the RICS rules have replaced this with simply
"Chartered Surveyor" (except those existing Chartered QS's who registered to keep the Chartered QS title by a date now passed),
and Chartered Quantity Surveyor practices have now largely adopted the title of "Construction Cost Consultants" and having the
right to call themselves simply "Chartered Surveyors" - though still often referred to in the UK construction industry as
"PQS's". It is also possible for Construction Cost Consultant practices to be occasionally employed by local authorities,
contractors or subcontractors, on a particular construction project although not if they are already employed as surveyors for
the same construction project.
As well as the role of Quantity Surveyor, other professions within the UK construction industry are for example: Architect,
Engineer, Project Manager, Planner, Safety Officer. These roles may be in 'Building' (buildings such as Offices, Shopping
Centres, Housing); or 'Civil Engineering' (structures such as Bridges, Dams, Motorways/Roads/Highways, Harbours/Ferry Terminals).
While projects such as construction of new Power Stations or Naval Bases may comprise a combination of both 'building' and 'civil
engineering'.
Graduate roles in the construction industry are filled by people with at least a foundation degree in subjects such as civil engineering,
building and construction management. Graduates often receive specialised
positions and gain qualifications such as chartered status.
Tender requirements
Industrial construction
Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component.
Owners of these projects are usually large, for-profit, industrial corporations. These corporations can be found in such
industries as medicine, petroleum, chemical, power generation, manufacturing, etc. Processes in these industries require highly
specialized expertise in planning, design, and construction. As in building and heavy/highway construction, this type of
construction requires a team of individuals to ensure a successful project.
Design team
In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of paper or
computer based designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical
proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a
design team including architects, interior designers,
surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers
(or quantity surveyors), mechanical
engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, and fire protection
engineers.[1] The design team is most commonly
employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the design team, a
number of construction companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based
directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided
by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner will typically award a
contract to the lowest responsible bidder.
The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially among large firms. In the
past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to
be entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or "construction
management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each
necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end.
This is designated as a "design Build" contract where the contractor is given a performance specification, and must undertake the
project from design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications.
Construction of a pre-fab house
Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build, partnering, and construction
management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior
designers, engineers, and constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond
traditional offerings of design or construction services alone, and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with
other necessary participants through the design-build process.
The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of the
project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration
of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building
engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.
Financial advisors
Many construction projects suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids ask for too little money to complete
the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the
current costs for labor and materials, and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise
even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is notoriously
prevalent in the construction field. Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan, with adequate
safeguards and contingency plans, is in place before the project is started, and is required to ensure that the plan is properly
executed over the life of the project.
Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers
are likely participants in creating an overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The
presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely even in relatively small projects, since the
owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project, and to monitor the payouts
throughout the process. Cost engineers apply expertise to relate the work and materials
involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor was able to identify
change orders or changes in the project resulting in large increases in cost, which are not subject to competition by other firm
as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[2]
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold,
supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available
for each stage of the building construction project carries forward. In many English speaking countries, but not the United
States, projects typically use quantity surveyors.
Legal considerations
A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include governmental regulations on the
use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of construction.
The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes will
not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the
desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad - bridge collapses or explosions. Other legal requirements come from
malum prohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation,
such as isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or
exemptions in the law governing the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the
bridge design won't collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the
community).
A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully considered.
A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get
the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that
a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to
ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths
to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted
contracts lead to confusion and collapse.
Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble
in the contract structure, and to present options for preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to
avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality
of the project.
Interaction of expertise
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for
the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate
the need for building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate the
design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforces the financial consequences of the construction process.
History
-
The first buildings were huts and shelters, constructed by hand or with simple tools.
As cities grew during the bronze age, a class of professional
craftsmen like bricklayers and carpenters appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for
construction work. In the middle ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles
such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.
- See also: History of
architecture
See also
References
External links
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