Haiti

Dictionary: Hai·ti (hā'tē)

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Haiti

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A country of the West Indies comprising western Hispaniola and two offshore islands. Originally inhabited by Arawak Indians, the region became a French colony in 1697. Following a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, an independent republic was established in 1804 comprising the entire island of Hispaniola. The eastern part of the island revolted in 1843, forming the Dominican Republic. In the 20th century Haiti was ruled by a series of dictatorships, including the repressive regimes of François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude, who was ousted in 1986. Jean-Bertrand Aristide became Haiti's first democratically elected president in 1991. Port-au-Prince is the capital and largest city. Population: 8,710,000.

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Investment Dictionary: HTG

In currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Haitian Gourde.

Investopedia Says:
The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Haiti

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Country in the West Indies, occupying the western third of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic to the east. Area: 10,695 sq mi (27,700 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 8,528,000. Capital: Port-au-Prince. Almost the entire population is of African or African-European descent. Languages: Haitian Creole, French (both official). Religions: Christianity (mainly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also Vodou. Currency: gourde. Most of the land is mountainous, about two-thirds above 1,600 ft (490 m) in elevation. The mountain ranges alternate with fertile but overpopulated lowlands. Haiti's tropical climate is modified by the mountains and subject to periodic droughts and hurricanes. Its longest river is the Artibonite. The poorest country in the Americas, Haiti has a developing market economy based in large part on agriculture and light industries; coffee is the main cash crop. It is a multiparty republic with two legislative houses; the chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. For early history, see Hispaniola. Haiti gained its independence in 1804, after former slaves led by Toussaint-Louverture in the 1790s and by Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1803 rebelled against French rule. The new republic encompassed the entire island of Hispaniola, but the eastern portion of the island was restored to Spain in 1809. It was reunited under Haitian Pres. Jean-Pierre Boyer (1818 – 43); after his overthrow the eastern portion revolted and formed the Dominican Republic. Haiti's government was marked by instability, with frequent coups and assassinations. It was occupied by the U.S. in 1915 – 34. In 1957 the dictator Francois ("Papa Doc") Duvalier came to power. Despite economic decline and civil unrest, Duvalier ruled until his death in 1971. He was succeeded by his son, Jean-Claude ("Baby Doc") Duvalier, who was forced into exile in 1986. Haiti's first free presidential elections, held in 1990, were won by Jean-Bertrand Aristide. He was deposed by a military coup in 1991, after which tens of thousands of Haitians attempted to flee to the U.S. in small boats. When the military government stepped down in 1994, Aristide returned from exile and resumed the presidency. His associate René Préval replaced him in 1995, and in 2000 Aristide reclaimed the presidency, only to be driven from office and out of the country in 2004 as economic and political instability continued to plague Haiti.

For more information on Haiti, visit Britannica.com.

French Literature Companion: Haiti

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1. The Nineteenth Century

Haiti, formerly the French colony of Saint-Domingue, became independent in 1804 as a result of a slave rebellion led by Toussaint Louverture. The declaration of independence meant the beginning of French Caribbean literature and arguably Caribbean literature as a whole [see West Indies]. The first decades of independence produced a range and sophistication in literary activity unlooked-for in an ex-colony. French colonialism in Haiti, as elsewhere in the Caribbean, was characterized by the plantation system and justified in terms of black inferiority. Such societies with their brutal beginnings were not expected to produce a literary or intellectual culture.

Haitian writing in the 19th c. was invariably motivated by political events. Pride in their defeat of Napoleon's army, the need to inspire ideals of nationhood and solidarity, and the celebration of Haiti's redemptive mission in a world where slavery still existed, dominated the ‘littérature de circonstance’ of these early years. Despite the instability of the first two decades of civil war, there was intense literary activity among the urban élite. Evidence of this can be seen in such literary journals as Jules-Solime Milscent's L'Abeille haytienne (1817) and Hérard Dumesle's L'Observateur (1819).

The fierce nationalism of these early years was reinforced by the influence of French Romanticism. The themes of the quest for identity, the importance of the imagination, and the influence of environment over sensibility have a shaping impact over this formative period. During the 23 years of relative calm under President Boyer, an early form of indigénisme was advocated in the newspaper Le Républicain (1837), founded by Ignace and Émile Nau along with the Ardouin brothers. These writers insisted on the value of literature in earning the respect of the outside world. They also criticized imitativeness and argued that Haitian artists should strive for a freshness and originality in their work.

This belief in the need to articulate a peculiarly Haitian world-view prepared the way for the achievement of Oswald Durand, whose Rires et pleurs (1896) was an ambitious attempt to describe Haitian flora and fauna as well as present-day culture. He is best known for his Choucoune, the first significant attempt to write poetry in Creole. Durand's contemporary Massillon Coicou had similar concerns, and his collection Poésies nationales (1892) was dedicated to celebrating the grandeur of Haitian independence.

At least as important as the creative writers of the 19th c. were Haiti's early pamphleteers. The first of these was the secretary of the short-lived king Henry Christophe, Le Baron de Vestey, whose Le Système colonial dévoilé (1814) is the first Caribbean critique of European colonialism and defence of national sovereignty. This tradition continued into the late 19th c., despite political uncertainties. Haiti's essayists defended their country against racist theorizing current at the time. For instance, in response to Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalitédes races humaines, which argued that the black race was incapable of civilization, Haiti produced a number of sophisticated responses. The titles of some of these polemical works speak for themselves: Louis-Joseph Janvier's L'Égalité des races (1884), Anténor Firmin's De l'égalité des races humaines (1885), and Hannibal Price's De la réhabilitation de la race noire (1900). Their concern with how to maintain independence after winning it anticipates the discussion of the issue of neo-colonialism which would emerge much later in the rest of the Caribbean.

2. 1900-1940

By the turn of the century, Haiti was a country in crisis. The internal divisions between rural peasantry and urban élite were acute. Equally apparent was the collapse of political authority and the persistent threat of outside intervention. Despite the gloom of these years, Haiti's literary production was remarkable. It is at this time that the prose narrative emerged in Haiti. These novels were either political satires or depictions of peasant life. In their application of the tenets of French Realism to their writing, Haiti's novelists produced political satire such as Frédéric Marcelin's Themistocle Epaminondas Labasterre (1901), social commentary in Justin Lhérisson's La Famille des Pitite Caille (1905), and a peasant novel in Antoine Innocent's Mimola (1906).

Poetic activity at the turn of the century was centred on the journal La Ronde (1898-1902), which represented a rejection of too parochial an approach to literature and advocated a new eclecticism. It was founded by Pétion Gerome and published the poetry of Etzer Vilaire, Edmond Laforest, and Georges Sylvain among others. In contrast to the novels, which are regionalist, the poetry of the generation of La Ronde was marked by French Symbolism with its insistence on an impersonal aesthetic. The delicate and allusive world of their poetry is strikingly different from the nationalistic verse of their predecessors. Vilaire was awarded a prize by the Académie Française for his poetry and a French edition of his work appeared in 1910. The glory of La Ronde was, however, short-lived, as chronic instability was making Haiti more vulnerable to outside intervention.

Haiti had seven presidents between 1910 and 1915, the last of whom was killed by a mob after ordering the execution of political prisoners. The following day the United States occupied Haiti. The Occupation lasted from 1915 to 1934 and had a profound effect on Haitian culture in the 20th c. Haitians, divided by colour and class when left to themselves, become united in the name of race and nation when there is a threat from outside. Consequently, the neo-colonial American presence in Haiti provoked a new wave of nationalism which manifested itself in different ways. There was a short-lived peasant revolt, the ‘caco’ rebellion, led by Charlemagne Peralte. The poet Georges Sylvain founded L'Union Patriotique in 1920 to protest against atrocities committed by the Americans. Opposition to the Occupation came to a head in 1929 with a series of strikes initiated by the students at the School of Agriculture. A younger and more radical generation of Haitians would now dominate intellectual life.

It is this generation which launched the movement of indigénisme in Haiti, and the movement was marked by their iconoclastic and anti-intellectual posture. Their restlessness was fed by the antiestablishment attitudes of Paris in the 1920s, and soon became apparent in the pages of such journals as La Nouvelle Ronde (1925), La Trouée (1927), and La Revue indigène (1927-8). The major poets of this movement—Émile Roumer, Jacques Roumain, Carl Brouard, and Philippe Thoby-Marcelin—wanted to go beyond the fashionably bohemian posturing of the time. They wished to end Haiti's intellectual isolation and introduce the writing of the Harlem Renaissance and of Latin America. They also felt that poetry might allow access to Haiti's soul. They were influenced by the ideas of Maurras in this quest for ‘l'âme haitienne’.

Their indebtedness to Maurras led them to embrace the ideas of one of Haiti's most influential thinkers, Jean Price-Mars. His Ainsi parla l'oncle (1928), which advocated that Haitian peasant culture was the key to understanding ‘l'âme haïtienne’, pushed indigénisme in the direction of noirisme, with its belief in the essential Africanness of Haitian culture. This interest in race and ethnology appealed equally to a sense of solidarity with a homogenous Pan-American diaspora. Literature in the 1930s was pervaded by concern with Haiti's Afro-Latin heritage. Perhaps the best-known poem on this theme is Léon Laleau's ‘Trahison’ (1931), which describes the Haitian soul as torn between ‘des mots de France’ and ‘le cœur … de Sénégal’.

The ideology of noirisme was formulated at this time by the Griot movement begun by Louis Diaquoi, François Duvalier, and Lorimer Denis. Indigénisme was too bland for the noiristes, and the pages of their journal Les Griots (1938-40) are filled with the advocacy of black nationalism and the verse of Carl Brouard inspired by voodoo mysticism. They did not challenge the political establishment in the 1930s, however, and their movement provoked little more than ridicule from members of the francophile mulatto élite such as Dantès Bellegarde.

The nonconformist 1930s also embraced Marxism, which did challenge the existing order. The Communist Party was founded by Jacques Roumain in 1934. Roumain's ideas were characterized by a view of culture as ever-changing and dynamic, which distinguished him from the reductionist notions of culture shared by both noiriste intellectuals and the francophile élite. His major works, inspired by a visionary Marxism, were the poems of Bois d'ébène (1945) and the novel Gouverneurs de la rosée (1944). These works, and Roumain's brand of Marxism, were to leave an indelible mark on generations of writers to come.

3. Since 1940

The 1940s in Haiti were a period of intellectual effervescence. This atmosphere was created by the influence of World War II and the radicalism of the post-Occupation period, and was intensified by the visits of writers such as Alejo Carpentier, Nicolas Guillen, Aimé Césaire, and André Breton. Surrealism, which had previously been criticized by Roumain and was evident only in the hermetic verse of Magloire Saint-Aude, received a tremendous boost from Breton's visit. It combined explosively with current radicalism and led to the overthrow of the conservative, pro-American regime of Elie Lescot by the student activists of the newspaper La Ruche in 1946.

The group was led by René Depestre and Jacques-Stephen Alexis. However, if the 1940s meant the intellectual ascendancy of Marxism and Surrealism, it also signified the political success of noirisme. The latter took centre stage in the regime of President Estimé, and the firebrands of La Ruche were shrewdly provided with scholarships to study abroad. Alexis became one of the first to challenge the ideas of négritude with his essay on réalisme merveilleux read at the First Congress of Black Writers held in Paris in 1956. Depestre would, in a response to criticism from Césaire, stress the need for cultural autonomy in Haiti in his ‘Introduction à un art poétique haïtien’ (1955). Both writers ran foul of noirisme as practised by the Duvalier regime, which came to power in 1957. Depestre spent most of his life in exile and Alexis was killed by Duvalier's militia in 1961.

The Duvalier regime lasted for 29 years in Haiti. After ‘president for life’ François Duvalier died in 1971, he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude, who was overthrown in 1986. Duvalierism contained the elements of xenophobia, racial mystification, and authoritarianism that characterized Griot ideology. The Duvalier regime in Haiti by the 1960s had stifled not only all dissent but also almost all intellectual activity. François Duvalier's collected works were tellingly entitled Œuvres essentielles (1966) to indicate that they were the ultimate authority on all subjects. As a result, writing dwindled within Haiti and was taken over by Haitians in exile in Montreal, Paris, New York, and Dakar.

Within Haiti, the only movement with any impact was spiralisme, founded by Franck Étienne in the late 1960s. Never openly political, spiralisme advocated a literary experimentation which was totally opposed to the closed discourse of authoritarian politics. It was only during the somewhat more relaxed regime of Jean-Claude Duvalier that spiralisme began to confront the Haitian state in Étienne's theatre, written exclusively in Creole. Outside Haiti, however, writing was characterized by a strident anti-Duvalierism. Novels by Depestre, Gérard Étienne, and Anthony Phelps were some of the most successful in the genre but never attained the high quality of the Latin American novels about dictatorship. Indeed, some of the most successful writing outside Haiti was not single-mindedly anti-Duvalierist, but began to question some of the received ideas of Haitian writing—cultural authenticity, national identity, and belief in the written word. The work of Anthony Phelps and Jean-Claude Charles rather provocatively addresses these issues and makes a plea for a reassessment of exile.

Since 1986 Haiti has entered a period of political uncertainty and intense self-questioning. It is no coincidence that the anti-Duvalier movement has no intellectual leadership and that its language is Creole. Now the burning issues are no longer literary.

[Michael Dash]

Bibliography

A. Viatte, Histoire littéraire de l'Amérique française (1954)
N. Garret, The Renaissance of Haitian Poetry (1963)
M. Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915-1961 (1981)

Columbia Encyclopedia: Haiti

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Haiti (hā'tē) , Fr. Haïti (äētē'), officially Republic of Haiti, republic (2005 est. pop. 8,122,000), 10,700 sq mi (27,713 sq km), West Indies, on the western third of the island of Hispaniola. It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the east by the Dominican Republic. Jamaica lies to the west and Cuba to the northwest. The offshore islands of Tortuga and Gonâve also belong to Haiti. The capital and largest city is Port-au-Prince.

Land and People

The country is mostly mountainous, but about one third of the land is arable. Once covered by forest, the country has been heavily logged for wood and fuel and to clear land for farming, and is now largely deforested. In addition to the capital, other important cities include Cap-Haïtien and Gonaïves. Haiti is the most densely populated country in Latin America and has the lowest per capita income, with about two thirds of the people unemployed and three quarters living in poverty. Prolonged economic inequality, political instability and repression, and a near total lack of medical care continue to be serious problems. The economic and political situation have caused numerous Haitians to seek work in the neighboring Dominican Republic, and others to emigrate, especially to the United States and the Bahamas.

About 95% of the inhabitants are descendants of African slaves who still follow West African cultural patterns. Since the mid-19th cent., however, Haiti has been dominated by the mulatto minority, which clings to the French cultural tradition. French and Haitian Creole, a French dialect, are the official languages of Haiti. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, but African nature gods are still worshiped, and vodun (voodoo) rites are practiced and are an officially recognized religion.

Economy

Agriculture is the principal economic activity in Haiti. Subsistence crops include cassava, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, yams, corn, and plantains. Most Haitians own and farm tiny plots of land, and great population density has caused rural poverty and is also a factor in the country's extensive deforestation, which has contributed to the degradation of agricultural land. Haiti's major exports are light manufactures and coffee; other exports include oils, cocoa, mangoes, sugar, sisal, and bauxite. The United States is the country's leading trading partner. Industry in Haiti consists largely of light assembly of imported parts and the manufacture of textiles. There is also sugar refining and flour milling, and other foodstuffs are produced. Some bauxite and copper are mined, but other mineral deposits have barely been tapped. Remitttances from Haitians working abroad are also extremely important. Economic sanctions imposed by the United States and others to force a military regime to return power to the elected government, and again later because of the government's inability to meet aid conditions, further damaged the impoverished economy during the 1990s and early 2000s.

Government

Haiti is governed under the constitution of 1987, which was suspended and reinstated several times between 1988 and 2006, when the country returned to constitutional rule. The president is the head of state; the prime minister, who is appointed by the president and confirmed by the legislature, is the head of government. Most power resides with the president. Haiti has a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, with a 30-seat Senate, whose members are elected to six-year terms, and a 99-seat Chamber of Deputies, whose members are elected to four-year terms. Administratively, the country is divided into 10 departments.

History

Early History to Independence

The island of Hispaniola was inhabited by the Arawaks prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1492. Disease, ill treatment, and execution by the Spaniards decimated the Arawaks, who gave Haiti (“land of mountains”) its name. While establishing plantations in E Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic), however, the Spanish largely ignored the western part of the island, which by the 17th cent. became a base for French and English buccaneers. Gradually French colonists, importing African slaves, developed sugar plantations on the northern coast. Unable to support its claim to the region, Spain ceded Haiti (then called Saint-Dominque) to France in 1697.

Haiti became France's most prosperous colony in the Americas and one of the world's chief coffee and sugar producers. The pattern of settlement took the French south in the 18th cent. and society became stratified into Frenchmen, Creoles, freed blacks, and black slaves. Between the blacks and the French and Creoles were the mulattoes, whose social status was indeterminate. When French-descended Creole planters sought to prevent mulatto representation in the French National Assembly and in local assemblies in Saint-Dominque, the mulattoes revolted under the leadership of Vincent Ogé. This rebellion destroyed the rigid structure of Haitian society. The blacks formed guerrilla bands led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former slave who had been made an officer of the French forces on Hispaniola.

When the English invaded Haiti in 1793 during the Napoleonic Wars, Toussaint maintained an uneasy alliance with the mulatto André Rigaud and cooperated with the remnant of French governmental authority. In 1795, Spain ceded its part of the island to France, and in 1801 Toussaint conquered it, abolished slavery, and proclaimed himself governor-general of an autonomous government over all Hispaniola. Napoleon sent his brother-in-law, Gen. Charles Leclerc, with a huge punitive force to restore order in 1802, but he was unable to conquer the interior.

A peace was negotiated, and Toussaint, taken by trickery, died in a French prison; but the revolt continued and forced the French troops, already ravaged by yellow fever, to withdraw. The rebels received unexpected aid from U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, who feared that Napoleon would use Saint-Dominque as a base to invade Louisiana. In 1804, Haiti became the second nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, to win complete independence.

The Struggles of Nationhood

After independence the remaining French and Creoles were expelled, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, an ex-slave, proclaimed himself emperor. His assassination (1806) led to the division of Haiti into a black-controlled north under Emperor Henri Christophe and a mulatto-ruled south under President Alexandre Pétion. After their deaths Haiti was unified by Jean Pierre Boyer, who also brought (1822–44) Santo Domingo under Haitian control. Seeking to indemnify French planters, Boyer brought financial ruin to Haiti; he was exiled in 1843. Haiti's last emperor (1847–59) was Faustin Soulouque. Since the end of his reign, the country has been a republic. Political and social conflict persisted, intensified by the mulatto-black hostility, and Haiti's economy, which had never recovered from the violent struggle for independence, declined further.

After the dictator Guillaume Sam was killed in a popular uprising in 1915, the United States, troubled over its property and investments in the country and fearing Germany might seize Haiti, took the opportunity to invade Port-au-Prince. The Haitian congress was forced to accept an agreement permitting U.S. control over customs receipts; two years later the resident American naval commander dissolved the congress and dictated a new constitution. Although financial and general material progress advanced under American military occupation, Haiti protested against U.S. violation of its sovereignty, and a U.S. Senate investigation in 1921 found that the avowed purpose of preparing Haiti for responsible self-government had been ignored. In 1930 a U.S. presidential commission recommended that Haiti be allowed to elect a legislature that would, in turn, name a president. Sténio Vincent, a vocal opponent of U.S. military occupation, was chosen by the legislators. The marines were finally withdrawn in 1934, although U.S. fiscal control was maintained until 1947.

Political instability persisted in Haiti after World War II, and the country's future was clouded by rising turbulence in the Dominican Republic and by the emergence of a Communist Cuba. François (“Papa Doc”) Duvalier, who was elected president in 1957, suppressed opposition through the creation of his paramilitary secret police, the tonton macoutes. In 1964 he proclaimed himself president for life. Upon his death in 1971 he was succeeded by his 19-year-old son, Jean-Claude (“Baby Doc”), who also became president for life. After 15 additional years of corruption, repression, and inequality under the younger Duvalier, popular discontent became great enough to induce him to flee the country in 1986.

Starting in 1986 there were several brief attempts at civilian democracy, each terminated by a military coup. In Sept., 1991, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was forced to flee the country only nine months after becoming the first freely elected president in Haiti's history. The United States and the Organization of American States responded with a trade embargo, and in 1993 a UN-sponsored oil embargo was imposed. An accord in 1993 providing for Aristide's return was repudiated by the army, which used terrorist violence to maintain power.

In 1994 the United Nations approved a nearly total trade embargo, and later authorized the use of force to restore democratic rule. On Sept. 18, 1994, as U.S. forces were poised to invade the island, an accord was negotiated. Haiti's military leaders relinquished power under an amnesty, and U.S. forces landed to oversee the transition. Aristide returned on Oct. 15 as president; U.S. troops were largely replaced by UN peacekeepers in Mar., 1995. In the December presidential election that year, René Préval was elected to succeed Aristide. In Apr., 1996, the last U.S. troops left, except for a few hundred in the capital who remained until Jan., 2000; meanwhile, after a wave of political killings, the United States suspended aid to Haiti.

In Jan., 1999, following a series of disagreements with Haitian legislators, Préval declared that their terms had expired, and he began ruling by decree. Parliamentary elections were finally held in May–June, 2000. They gave Aristide's Lavalas Family party an overwhelming majority in both houses, but the method of counting the votes, in which only those won by the four leading candidates were tallied and candidates thus did not need to win an actual absolute majority, was widely criticized.

In Nov., 2000, Aristide was again elected president, winning nearly 92% of the votes cast, but turnout for the election was light. The following year Amnesty International said that human rights and the rule of law had diminished in Haiti, citing harassment of opposition politicians and attacks on journalists. There was an apparent coup attempt against Aristide in Dec., 2001, although it was unclear who was behind it. The political stalemate with the opposition led to the freezing of foreign aid and ongoing economic hardship in Haiti.

Violence between supporters and opponents of the president increased in 2003, and several of Aristide's cabinet ministers resigned bu the end of the year. Parliamentary elections failed to be held, resulting in the dissolution of parliament in Jan., 2004, leaving Aristide to rule by decree and sparking recurring anti-Aristide opposition demonstrations in the streets. In February an armed uprising began in Gonaïves, and by the end of the month armed rebels consisting of disaffected gangs formerly allied with the government, former soldiers, paramilitaries, and police, and others, were on the verge of entering the capital.

Under pressure from the United States and France, Aristide resigned and went into exile, subsequently accusing U.S. and French officials variously of duping, coercing, or kidnapping him. U.S., French, Canadian, and Chilean forces arrived to maintain order, and an interim government headed by Gérard Latortue, a former foreign minister, was established. The Caribbean Community, however, refused to recognize Prime Minister Latortue, and called for a UN investigation into Aristide's resignation. Subsequently, CARICOM decided not to readmit Haiti until after the reestablishment of a democratically elected government. In April Latortue announced that general elections for a new government would be held in 2005, but they were subsequently postponed several times during 2005 due to inadequate preparation. A UN peacekeeping force led by Brazil began replacing U.S., Canadian, and French forces in June, 2004.

Flooding from heavy rains in May killed some 1,700 in the south near the Dominican Republic, and in September Tropical Storm Jeanne caused additional deadly flooding, especially in the area around Gonaïves, where some 2,500 died. The September flooding also caused significant agricultural damage. Unrest and lawlessness on the part of Aristide supporters and opponents continued to be a problem in the country, despite the presence of foreign peacekeepers. In Nov., 2005, the much delayed 2005 national elections were postponed into 2006.

When the presidential election was held in Feb., 2006, René Préval handily led all other candidates (there were more than 30) but appeared to be falling short of the majority required to avoid a runoff. The former president and his supporters charged that there was electoral fraud, an accusation seemingly supported by an unusually high number of blank ballots and by the discovery of charred blank and Préval ballots in a dump near the capital. Amid demonstrations and mounting tension, election officials agreed to assign the blank ballots proportionally to the candidates, giving Préval nearly 51% of the vote. Parliamentary elections were held at the same time, but the investigation of electoral complaints delayed the second round into April, and Préval was not sworn in until May. The following month Haiti was readmitted to CARICOM.

Armed gangs remain a significant problem in Haiti, and in Oct., 2006, the United States partially lifted an arms embargo against Haiti so that the government could buy weapons and other equipment for the Haitian police. In Feb., 2007, the mandate of the UN peacekeepers was again extended; the Security Council called on UN forces to move more strongly against Haiti's criminal gangs. Although UN forces had successes against a number of urban gangs, some relocated to rural areas where they were less likely to be confronted by peacekeepers. Rising food prices led to antigovernment and anti-UN protests and riots in a number of Haitian cities in Apr., 2008; in Port-au-Prince rioters attempted to storm the presidenital palace. The riots led the Senate to dismiss the prime minister; two nominees for the post were subsequently rejected by Haiti's legislature before Michèle Pierre-Louis was elected in July. In Aug.–Sept., 2008, a series of hurricanes caused widespread devastation, especially in the area around Gonaïves; some 800 people died.

Bibliography

See H. Courlander and R. Bastien, Religion and Politics in Haiti (1966); R. W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (1968); H. Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (1971); T. O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1804 (1973); R. D. Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971 (1978); B. Weinstein and A. Segal, Haiti: Political Failures, Cultural Successes (1984); J. Ferguson, Papa Doc, Baby Doc: Haiti and the Duvaliers (1987); R. Robinson, Haiti, From Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President (2007).

Geography: Haiti

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Republic in the West Indies, on the western third of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Its capital and largest city is Port-au-Prince.

With its extremely low average income and literacy rate, Haiti is the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere.
In 1957, François (“Papa Doc”) Duvalier established a dictatorship; at his death in 1971, he was succeeded by his son, Jean Claude (“Baby Doc”), who was finally overthrown in 1986. Since then the government has changed several times through military coups. In 1994, U.S. troops arrived in Haiti in an effort to restore democratic government, however, the political and economic future of Haiti remains uncertain.

Dialing Code: Haiti

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The international dialing code for Haiti is: 509

Maps: Haiti

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Local Time: Haiti

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Local Time: Jul 10, 8:04 PM

Currency: Haiti

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Haitian Gourde

Statistics: Haiti

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Introduction

Background:

The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola, and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African slaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first black republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by political violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion led to the departure of President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE in February 2004, an interim government took office to organize new elections under the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate a democratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006.

Geography

Location:	Caribbean, western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Dominican Republic
Geographic coordinates:	19 00 N, 72 25 W
Map references:	Central America and the Caribbean
Area:	total: 27,750 sq km land: 27,560 sq km water: 190 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly smaller than Maryland
Land boundaries:	total: 360 km border countries: Dominican Republic 360 km
Coastline:	1,771 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
Climate:	tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds
Terrain:	mostly rough and mountainous
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Chaine de la Selle 2,680 m
Natural resources:	bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, gold, marble, hydropower
Land use:	arable land: 28.11% permanent crops: 11.53% other: 60.36% (2005)
Irrigated land:	920 sq km (2003)
Natural hazards:	lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts
Environment - current issues:	extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Hazardous Wastes
Geography - note:	shares island of Hispaniola with Dominican Republic (western one-third is Haiti, eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic)

People

Population:	8,706,497 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 42.1% (male 1,846,175/female 1,817,082) 15-64 years: 54.4% (male 2,313,542/female 2,426,326) 65 years and over: 3.5% (male 134,580/female 168,792) (2007 est.)
Median age:	total: 18.4 years male: 17.9 years female: 18.8 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:	2.453% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:	35.87 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:	10.4 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:	-0.94 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.016 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.954 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.797 male(s)/female total population: 0.973 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 63.83 deaths/1,000 live births male: 68.45 deaths/1,000 live births female: 59.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 57.03 years male: 55.35 years female: 58.75 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:	4.86 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	5.6% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	280,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	24,000 (2003 est.)
Nationality:	noun: Haitian(s) adjective: Haitian
Ethnic groups:	black 95%, mulatto and white 5%
Religions:	Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% (Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%, Adventist 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% note: roughly half of the population practices voodoo
Languages:	French (official), Creole (official)
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 52.9% male: 54.8% female: 51.2% (2003 est.)

Government

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of Haiti conventional short form: Haiti local long form: Republique d'Haiti/Repiblik d' Ayiti local short form: Haiti/Ayiti
Government type:	republic
Capital:	name: Port-au-Prince geographic coordinates: 18 32 N, 72 20 W time difference: UTC-5 (same time as Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins first Sunday in April; ends last Sunday in October
Administrative divisions:	10 departments (departements, singular - departement); Artibonite, Centre, Grand 'Anse, Nippes, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est
Independence:	1 January 1804 (from France)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 1 January (1804)
Constitution:	approved March 1987; suspended June 1988 with most articles reinstated March 1989; constitutional government ousted in a military coup in September 1991, although in October 1991, military government claimed to be observing the constitution; returned to constitutional rule in October 1994; constitution, while technically in force between 2004-2006, was not enforced; returned to constitutional rule in May 2006
Legal system:	based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Rene PREVAL (since 14 May 2006) head of government: Prime Minister Jacques-Edouard ALEXIS (since 30 May 2006) cabinet: Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term (may not serve consecutive terms); election last held 7 February 2006 (next to be held in 2010); prime minister appointed by the president, ratified by the National Assembly election results: Rene PREVAL elected president; percent of vote - Rene PREVAL 51%
Legislative branch:	bicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale consists of the Senate (30 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms; one-third elected every two years) and the Chamber of Deputies (99 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms); note - in reestablishing the Senate, the candidate in each department receiving the most votes in the last election serves six years, the candidate with the second most votes serves four years, and the candidate with the third most votes serves two years elections: Senate - last held 21 April 2006 with run-off elections on 3 December 2006 (next regular election, for one third of seats, to be held in 2008); Chamber of Deputies - last held 21 April 2006 with run-off elections on 3 December 2006 (next regular election to be held in 2010) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - L'ESPWA 11, FUSION 5, OPL 4, FL 3, LAAA 2, UNCRH 2, PONT 2, ALYANS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - L'ESPWA 23, FUSION 17, FRN 12, OPL 10, ALYANS 10, LAAA 5, MPH 3, MOCHRENA 3, other 10; results for six other seats contested on 3 December 2006 remain unknown
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court or Cour de Cassation
Political parties and leaders:	Artibonite in Action or LAAA [Youri LATORTUE]; Assembly of Progressive National Democrats or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT]; Convention for Democratic Unity or KID [Evans PAUL]; Cooperative Action to Build Haiti or KONBA [Evans LESCOUFALIR]; Democratic Alliance or ALYANS [Evans PAUL] (coalition composed of KID and PPRH); Effort and Solidarity to Create an Alternative for the People or ESKAMP [Joseph JASME]; For Us All or PONT [Jean-Marie CHERESTAL]; Front for Hope or L'ESPWA [Rene PREVAL] (alliance of ESKAMP, PLB, and grass-roots organizations Grand-Anse Resistance Committee, the Central Plateau Peasants' Group, and Kombit Sudest); Haitian Christian Democratic Party or PDCH [Osner FEVRY and Marie-Denise CLAUDE]; Haitian Democratic and Reform Movement or MODEREH [Dany TOUSSAINT and Pierre Soncon PRINCE]; Heads Together or Tet-Ansanm [Dr. Gerard BLOT]; Independent Movement for National Reconciliation or MIRN [Luc FLEURINORD]; Justice for Peace and National Development or JPDN [Rigaud DUPLAN]; Fanmi Lavalas or FL [Rudy HERIVEAUX]; Liberal Party of Haiti or PLH [Gehy MICHEL]; Merging of Haitian Social Democratic Parties or FUSION or FPSDH [Serge GILLES] (coalition of Ayiti Capable, Haitian National Revolutionary Party, and National Congress of Democratic Movements); Mobilization for Haiti's Development or MPH [Samir MOURRA]; Mobilization for National Development or MDN [Hubert de RONCERAY]; Movement for National Reconstruction or MRN [Jean Henold BUTEAU]; Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti or MIDH [Marc BAZIN]; National Christian Union for the Reconstruction of Haiti or UNCRH [Marie Claude GERMAIN]; National Front for the Reconstruction of Haiti or FRN [Guy PHILIPPE]; New Christian Movement for a New Haiti or MOCHRENA [Luc MESADIEU]; Open the Gate Party or PLB [Anes LUBIN]; Popular Party for the Renewal of Haiti or PPRH [Claude ROMAIN]; Struggling People's Organization or OPL [Edgard LEBLANC]; Union of Nationalist and Progressive Haitians or UNITE [Edouard FRANCISQUE]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	Autonomous Organizations of Haitian Workers or CATH [Fignole ST-CYR]; Confederation of Haitian Workers or CTH; Federation of Workers Trade Unions or FOS; General Organization of Independent Haitian Workers [Patrick NUMAS]; Grand-Anse Resistance Committee, or KOREGA; National Popular Assembly or APN; Papaye Peasants Movement or MPP [Chavannes JEAN-BAPTISTE]; Popular Organizations Gathering Power or PROP; Roman Catholic Church; Protestant Federation of Haiti
International organization participation:	ACCT, ACP, Caricom, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OIF, OPANAL, OPCW (signatory), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Raymond JOSEPH chancery: 2311 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-4090 FAX: [1] (202) 745-7215 consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Janet A. SANDERSON embassy: 5 Harry S Truman Boulevard, Bicentenaire-Port-au-Prince mailing address: P. O. Box 1761, Port-au-Prince telephone: [509] 222-0200 FAX: [509] 223-9038
Flag description:	two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength)

Economy

Economy - overview:	Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, with 80% of the population living under the poverty line and 54% in abject poverty. Two-thirds of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, mainly small-scale subsistence farming, and remain vulnerable to damage from frequent natural disasters, exacerbated by the country's widespread deforestation. A macroeconomic program developed in 2005 with the help of the International Monetary Fund helped the economy grow 1.8% in 2006, the highest growth rate since 1999. Haiti suffers from higher inflation than similar low-income countries, a lack of investment, and a severe trade deficit. In 2005, Haiti paid its arrears to the World Bank, paving the way for reengagement with the Bank. The government relies on formal international economic assistance for fiscal sustainability. In 2006, Haiti held a successful donors conference in which the total aid pledged exceeded Haiti's request. Remittances are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling nearly a quarter of GDP.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$14.76 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):	$5.953 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	2.3% (2006 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 28% industry: 20% services: 52% (2004 est.)
Labor force:	3.6 million note: shortage of skilled labor, unskilled labor abundant (1995)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 66% industry: 9% services: 25% (1995)
Unemployment rate:	widespread unemployment and underemployment; more than two-thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs (2002 est.)
Population below poverty line:	80% (2003 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% (2001)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	13.1% (2006 est.)
Investment (gross fixed):	28.9% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $658 million expenditures: $726.9 million (2006 est.)
Agriculture - products:	coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, rice, corn, sorghum; wood
Industries:	sugar refining, flour milling, textiles, cement, light assembly based on imported parts
Industrial production growth rate:	NA%
Electricity - production:	535 million kWh (2005)
Electricity - consumption:	322 million kWh (2005)
Electricity - exports:	0 kWh (2005)
Electricity - imports:	0 kWh (2005)
Oil - production:	0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - consumption:	11,600 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports:	NA bbl/day
Oil - imports:	NA bbl/day
Oil - proved reserves:	0 bbl (1 January 2006)
Current account balance:	$-1 million (2006 est.)
Exports:	$494 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports - commodities:	manufactures, coffee, oils, cocoa, mangoes
Exports - partners:	US 80%, Dominican Republic 7.6%, Canada 3% (2006)
Imports:	$1.548 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports - commodities:	food, manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, fuels, raw materials
Imports - partners:	US 46.5%, Netherlands Antilles 11.9%, Brazil 3.8% (2006)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$253.9 million (2006 est.)
Debt - external:	$1.312 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid - recipient:	$515 million (2005 est.)
Currency (code):	gourde (HTG)
Exchange rates:	gourdes per US dollar - 40.232 (2006), 40.449 (2005), 38.352 (2004), 42.367 (2003), 29.251 (2002)
Fiscal year:	1 October - 30 September

Transportation

Airports:	14 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 (2007)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 10 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 9 (2007)
Roadways:	total: 4,160 km paved: 1,011 km unpaved: 3,149 km (1999)
Ports and terminals:	Cap-Haitien

Military

Military branches:	no regular military forces - small coast guard; the regular Haitian Armed Forces (FAdH) - Army, Navy, and Air Force - have been demobilized but still exist on paper unless they are constitutionally abolished (2007)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 18-49: 1,626,491 females age 18-49: 1,637,657 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 18-49: 948,320 females age 18-49: 931,972 (2005 est.)
Manpower reaching military service age annually:	males age 18-49: 98,554 females age 18-49: 97,690 (2005 est.)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP:	0.4% (2006)

Transnational Issues

Disputes - international:	since 2004, about 8,000 peacekeepers from the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) maintain civil order in Haiti; despite efforts to control illegal migration, Haitians cross into the Dominican Republic and sail to neighboring countries; Haiti claims US-administered Navassa Island
Illicit drugs:	Caribbean transshipment point for cocaine en route to the US and Europe; substantial bulk cash smuggling activity; Colombian narcotics traffickers favor Haiti for illicit financial transactions; pervasive corruption; significant consumer of cannabis

Local Cuisine: Haiti

Top

A Typical Christmas Menu

Fried pork or goat
Pikliz (spicy pickled carrots and cabbage)
Fried plantains
Pain Patate (sweetened potato, fig, and banana pudding)
Haitian bread
Pineapple Nog

Recipes

French-Style Lettuce Salad
Corn Pudding
Spiced Cocoa
Mango Juice
Bannann Peze (Fried Plantains)
Riz et Pois Rouges (Rice and Red Beans)
Riz Djon-Djon (Rice and Haitian Mushrooms)
Haitian Fruit Salad
Pain Haïtien (Haitian Bread)
Pineapple Nog
Ti-Malice (Spicy Haitian Sauce)
Cornmeal Porridge

Geographic Setting and Environment

Haiti occupies the western third of the island of Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two thirds). Haiti is slightly larger than the state of Maryland, with an area of 27,750 square kilometers (10,714 square miles) including several islands. Three main mountain ranges, separated by open plains, stretch across the country. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. Coffee, cocoa, coconuts, avocado, orange, lime, and mango grow wild. The most important commercial crops are coffee and sugarcane. Other important crops include bananas, corn, rice, sorghum, beans, and cocoa beans. The virgin forests that once covered the entire country have now been reduced to about 4 percent of the total land area.

History and Food

Spain, France, the continent of Africa, and later the United States, were crucial in shaping traditional Haitian cuisine. Throughout its history, several foreign countries gained control of Haiti, introducing food and ideas from their native lands, many of which significantly affected the foods modern Haitians eat.

The island of Hispaniola, which encompasses both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was inhabited by hunter-gatherers as early as 5000 B.C. Fruits and vegetables such as guavas, pineapples, cassava, papayas, sweet potatoes, and corn were cultivated by early Haitian tribes, particularly the Arawak and Taino Indians. It was not long before the first European arrived on the island and began introducing oranges, limes, mangoes, rice, and sugarcane. Slaves from Africa were eventually transported to Haiti to work the sugarcane plantations.

On December 6, 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island and named it La Isla Espanola (later named Hispaniola), or the Spanish Island, and claimed it for Spain. The Spaniards called it Santo Domingo. The Spanish established sugar plantations and made the native Indians work as slaves. Hard labor and disease nearly wiped out the indigenous population by 1520, forcing the Spaniards to ship slaves from Africa to work the plantations instead. The Africans introduced okra (also called gumbo; edible pods), ackee (red and yellow fruit), taro (edible root), pigeon peas (seeds of an African shrub), and various spices to the diet. They later introduced such Haitian specialties as red beans and rice and mirliton (or chayote; a pear-shaped vegetable) to Louisiana's Creole cuisine.

By 1700, the French had taken control of Hispaniola from Spain. The French colonists successfully cultivated sugarcane, coffee, cotton, and cocoa with the help of African slaves.

Haitians won their independence and became the first African-American republic in the New World in 1804. French rule, however, remains evident in modern Haitian society, particularly in the wide use of the French language, and in the contributions to the country's cuisine. French cheeses, desserts, and breads are commonly found at local markets and stores.

See French-Style Lettuce Salad recipe.

See Corn Pudding recipe.

See Spiced Cocoa recipe.

See Mango Juice recipe.

Foods of the Haitians

Haitian food is often lumped together with other Caribbean islands as "Caribbean cuisine." However, Haiti maintains an independently unique flavor. Unlike its Spanish-influenced counterpart, the Dominican Republic, Haitian cuisine is based on Creole and French cooking styles. Strong pepper flavoring in many dishes also sets Haitian food apart from the other islands.

Several dishes are specifically native to Haiti, including rice djon-djon (jon-JON). It requires Haitian black mushrooms, locally grown fungi. The stems of the mushrooms are used to color the rice black, then the mushroom caps with lima beans are used as a tasty topping. Calalou (kah-lah-LOO), consisting of crabmeat, salted pork, spinach, onion, okra, and peppers, and pain patate (pane pah-TAT), a sweetened potato, fig, and banana pudding, are other native dishes to Haiti. Soup jomou (pumpkin soup) is traditionally served for lunch on Sundays.

In general, the average Haitian diet is largely based on starch staples such as rice (which is locally grown), corn, millet, yams, and beans. However, wealthier residents can afford meats (usually pork and goat), lobster, spiced shrimp, duck, and sweet desserts such as French-influenced mousse and pastries.

Extravagant fare such as frog legs, cold cuts, and French cheeses are available (typically in Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital), but they are not commonly eaten by the average Haitian. Riz et Pois, the country's national dish of rice and beans, is more common fare. It is relatively inexpensive, and the rice and beans provide carbohydrates for field workers. Mayi moulen (cornmeal mush) cooked with kidney beans, coconut, and peppers, and pikliz (spicy pickled carrots and cabbage) can be filling, and its ingredients are usually affordable. Haitians also tend to frequently fry their meals in pig fat to give them greater flavor. Bannann peze (fried plantains, similar to bananas), poule (fried chicken), tasso (deep-fried beef), and grio (fried pork) are common examples.

Haiti's tropical Caribbean climate allows for tropical fruits such as avocados, mangoes, pineapples, coconuts, and guava to grow in abundance. Such fruits are often used to make refreshing fruit juices. Other popular beverages include shaved ice topped with a fruity syrup, Juna (a locally produced orange squash drink), and even sugarcane. Both adults and children enjoy chewing on the stalks to extract its sweet juice.

See Bannann Peze (Fried Plantains) recipe.

See Riz et Pois Rouges (Rice and Red Beans) recipe.

See Riz Djon-Djon (Rice and Haitian Mushrooms) recipe.

See Haitian Fruit Salad recipe.

Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations

Religion is an important part of Haitian life and culture. The two main religions are Roman Catholicism and Voudou (or Voodoo), a mixture of African animism (belief in spirits and nature) and Christianity. In addition to visiting family and enjoying delicious meals together, religious and secular (nonreligious) celebrations are also a time to forget about everyday poverty and hardship.

Roman Catholics observe such holidays as Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Christmas—one of the most celebrated of all Christian holidays worldwide. On Christmas Eve in Haiti, Roman Catholics attend midnight mass, followed by a celebration dinner and gift exchanges. Children will also travel through local streets carrying a small house or church that they have made ahead of time with strips of cardboard called a fanal (fah-NAHL). Typically, only the homes of the wealthy will own a Christmas tree, but everyone in a village might get to enjoy pis d'etoil (firecrackers).

Haitians who practice voudou enjoy harvest festivals that take place for two days each November. Haitian peasants observe Manger-Yam (mahn-djay YAM), literally meaning "eat yam" day. Along with singing and dancing, the festival is celebrated by feasting and drinking. The purpose of this day is to recognize the importance of the yam in the rural Haitian diet.

National holidays, holidays observed and celebrated by the majority of the population (regardless of religious beliefs), are also popular. November 2 is All Souls' Day (or the Day of the Dead). On this special day, loved ones who have passed away are honored and their lives celebrated through storytelling, eating, and drinking. Many people choose to place food in front of a loved one's grave or on the table where they used to eat. Only after the food has been offered will the rest of the family enjoy their own meals.

Probably the most widely celebrated event in Haiti is known as Carnival, or Mardi Gras. Though the main attraction is music, these three days preceding Ash

Wednesday each February (known as "Fat Tuesday" in the United States) are also marked by days of celebratory feasting.

See Pain Haïtien (Haitian Bread) recipe.

See Pineapple Nog recipe.

Mealtime Customs

Most of Haitian society consists of peasants who live a simple lifestyle. On a small plot of owned or rented land, the peasants usually cultivate beans, sweet potatoes, maize (similar to corn), bananas, or coffee (and sometimes a combination). Men plant and harvest the crops while the women typically take care of the children, prepare meals, and sell the extra crops they have grown (if there are any) at the local market.

Markets are frequently the center of economic and social activity in small Haitian villages, and a place where mostly women can be seen selling produce. Markets located in tourist areas, such as Port-au-Prince, the country's capital, often open for business as early as 5 A.M. It is normal for women to sometimes walk several miles each way to the market carrying large baskets of produce on their heads. Though vegetables and fruits are probably the most commonly sold food, salted codfish, and various meats, and manioc flour are also popular. There are no refrigerators, so seafood and meat is typically covered in salt to help preserve it in the warm, outdoor markets. Other homemade products such as clothing, cooking utensils, and baskets are also sold.

Ready-to-eat meals are also available, usually for the hungry tourist. The most popularly sold dish is a porridge made of a ground corn, sugar, and milk, cooked over a large fire. It is usually eaten immediately after it has been purchased, typically served in a tin cup.

Peasants themselves usually begin the day with a light breakfast of locally grown coffee and bread made of manioc flour (wheat flour is often too expensive for the typical Haitian peasant, who has very little money). Most peasants work in the fields and take a break for a light snack around midday. Another break from fieldwork (as well as a chance to see his family) is in the late afternoon when peasants often return home to eat the main meal of the day. Unfortunately, the main meal of the day may be little more than what was eaten for the midday snack—porridge and possibly a freshly grown fruit, such as pineapple, coconut, or mango. Haiti's national dish of beans and rice may also be eaten. Pumpkin soup is traditionally eaten for lunch on Sundays, for those who can afford its ingredients (it is also eaten on New Year's Day for good luck).

Spicy, flavorful sauces are common in several Haitian dishes, particularly to season bland peasant dishes. The most popular sauce is ti-malice (tih-mah-LISS), a very spicy tomato and onion mixture.

See Ti-Malice (Spicy Haitian Sauce) recipe.

See Cornmeal Porridge recipe.

Politics, Economics, and Nutrition

About 61 percent of the population of Haiti is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 28 percent are underweight, and nearly one-third are stunted (short for their age).

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, with unemployment rates as high as 70 percent of the population. Many families cannot afford healthy, vitamin-enriched meals, although mangoes are frequently eaten to avoid a Vitamin A deficiency. In addition, only about one-quarter of Haitians have access to adequate sanitation.

Although the country is surrounded by an abundance of water, it continues to lack water in both quantity and quality. Poor nutrition and sanitation have caused Haiti to have one of the youngest life expectancies. In 1998, the average life expectancy was 54.4 years of age.

Further Study

Books

Cheong-Lum, Roseline. Haiti: Cultures of the World. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1995.

Web Sites

Baptist Haiti Mission. [Online] Available http://www.bhm.org (accessed April 16, 2001).

Culinary Specialties of Haiti. [Online] Available http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~agenhtml/agenmc/haiti/food.html (accessed April 16, 2001).

Recipe Goldmine. [Online] Available http://www.recipesgoldmine.com/caribbean2.html (accessed April 16, 2001).

National Anthem: National Anthem of: Haiti

Top

Pour le pays, pour les ancêtres
Marchons unis, marchons unis
Dans nos rangs point de traitres
Du sol soyons seuls maîtres
Marchons unis, marchons unis
Pour le pays, pour les ancêtres
Marchons, marchons, marchons unis
Pour le pays, pour les ancêtres

Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie
Mourir est beau, mourir est beau
Notre passé nous crie
Ayez l'âme aguérrie
Mourir est beau, mourir est beau
Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie
Mourir, mourir, mourir est beau
Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie

Wikipedia: Haiti

Top

Republic of Haiti

République d'Haïti
Repiblik Ayiti


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: "L'Union Fait La Force" (French)

"Strength Through Unity "

Anthem: La Dessalinienne

Capital
(and largest city)

Port-au-Prince
18°32′N 72°20′W / 18.533°N 72.333°W

Official languages French, Haitian Creole

Ethnic groups Black 95%;
Mulatto & white 5%^[1]

Demonym

Haitian

Government

Presidential republic

- President René Préval

- Prime Minister Michèle Pierre-Louis

Formation

- as Saint-Domingue 1697

- Independence from France 1 January 1804

Area

- Total 27,751 km² (140th)
10,714 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.7

Population

- 2009 estimate 9,035,536 (72nd)

GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate

- Total $91.562 billion^[2]

- Per capita $1,318^[2]

GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate

- Total $12.952 billion^[2]

- Per capita ^[2]

Gini (2001) 59.2 (high)

HDI (2007) ▲ 0.529 (medium) (120th)

Currency Gourde (HTG)

Time zone (UTC-5)

Drives on the right

Internet TLD

.ht

Calling code 509

Haiti (pronounced /ˈheɪtiː/; French Haïti, pronounced: [a.iti]; Haitian Creole: Ayiti), officially the Republic of Haiti (République d'Haïti ; Repiblik Ayiti), is a Creole- and French-speaking Caribbean country. Along with the Dominican Republic, it occupies the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago. Ayiti (Land on high) was the indigenous Taíno or Amerindian name for the mountainous western side of the island. The country's highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft). The total area of Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) and its capital is Port-au-Prince.

Haiti's regional, historical, and ethnolinguistic position is unique for several reasons. It was the first independent nation in Latin America, the first post-colonial independent black-led nation in the world, and the only nation whose independence was gained as part of a successful slave rebellion. Haiti is the only predominantly Francophone independent nation in the Americas, and one of only two (along with Canada) which designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking countries are all overseas départements or collectivités of France.

History

Main article: History of Haiti

The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western third, was originally inhabited by the Taíno Arawaks, a seafaring branch of the South American Arawaks. Christopher Columbus landed at Môle Saint-Nicolas on 5 December 1492, and claimed the island for Spain. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haitien; Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, founding the settlement of La Navidad. Ayiti, which means "mountainous land", is a name used by the Taíno-Arawak people, who also called some sections of it Bohio, meaning "rich villages". Kiskeya is yet a third term that has been attributed to the Taínos for the island.

The Taíno population on Hispaniola was divided through a system of established cacicazgos (chiefdoms), named Marien, Maguana, Higuey, Magua and Xaragua, which could be further subdivided. The cacicazgos (later called caciques in French) were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of food grown by the Taíno. Taino cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the nation, which have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogane, a town in the southwest, is at the epicenter of what was the chiefdom of Xaragua.

1510 pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola

Following the destruction of La Navidad by the Amerindians, Columbus moved to the eastern side of the island and established La Isabela. One of the earliest leaders to fight off Spanish conquest was Queen Anacaona, a Taíno princess from Xaragua who married Chief Caonabo, a Taíno king (cacique) from Maguana. The two resisted European rule but to no avail; she was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. To this day, Anacaona is revered in Haiti as one of the country's first founders, preceding the likes of founding fathers such as Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The Spaniards exploited the island for its gold, mined chiefly by local Amerindians directed by the Spanish occupiers. Those refusing to work in the mines were slaughtered or forced into slavery. Europeans brought chronic infectious diseases with them that were new to the Caribbean. Diseases were the most powerful of the elements because the Taíno had no natural immunity, but ill treatment, malnutrition and a drastic drop of the birthrate also contributed to decimation of the indigenous population.

The Spanish governors began importing enslaved Africans for labor. In 1517, Charles V, authorized the draft of slaves. The Taínos became virtually extinct on the island of Hispaniola. Some who evaded capture fled to the mountains and established independent settlements. These survivors mixed with escaped African slaves (runaways called maroons) and produced a multiracial generation called zambos. French settlers later called people of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry marabou. The mestizo increased in number from children born to relationships between native women and European men. Others were born as a result of unions between African women and European men, who were called mulâtre in French.

The western part of Hispaniola soon was settled by French buccaneers. Among them, Bertrand D'Ogeron succeeded in growing tobacco, which prompted many of the numerous buccaneers and freebooters to turn into settlers. This population did not submit to Spanish royal authority until the year 1660 and caused a number of conflicts.

17th century settlement

Bertrand D'Orgeron attracted many colonists from Martinique and Guadeloupe, such as the Roy family (Jean Roy, 1625-1707), Hebert (Jean Hebert, 1624, with his family) and the Barre (Guillaume Barre, 1642, with his family), driven out by pressure on lands generated by extension of sugar plantations. From 1670 to 1690, a drop in the tobacco markets affected the island and significantly reduced the number of settlers. Freebooters grew stronger, plundering settlements, such as those of Vera Cruz in 1683 and Campêche in 1686. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, elder son of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Jean-Baptiste James and Minister of the Navy, brought back some order. He ordered the establishment of indigo and sugar cane plantations. The first windmill for processing sugar was created in 1685.

Treaty of Ryswick and slave colony

France and Spain settled hostilities on the island by the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. Many French colonists soon arrived and established plantations in Saint-Domingue due to high profit potential. From 1713 to 1787, approximately 30,000 colonists, emigrated from Bordeaux, France to the western part of the island. By about 1790, Saint-Domingue had greatly overshadowed its eastern counterpart in terms of wealth and population. It quickly became the richest French colony in the New World due to the immense profits from the sugar, coffee and indigo industries. The labor and knowledge of thousands of enslaved Africans made it possible, who brought skills and technology for indigo production to the island. The French-enacted Code Noir (Black Code), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, established rigid rules on slave treatment and permissible freedom. It has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies there ever was - a third of new arrivals died within a few years. ^[3]

The Haitian Revolution

Main article: Haitian Revolution

Jean Jacques Dessalines, leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti.

The French Revolution contributed to social upheavals in Saint-Domingue and the French and West Indies. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint-Domingue, starting on the northern plains in 1791. In 1792 the French government sent three commissioners with troops to try to reestablish control. They began to build an alliance with gens de couleur, who were looking for their rights. In 1793, France and Great Britain went to war, and British troops invaded Saint-Domingue. The execution of Louis XVI heightened tensions in the colony. To build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the national Convention endorsed abolition and extended it to all of the French colonies.

Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt who rose in importance as a military commander because of his many skills, achieved peace in Saint-Domingue after years of war against both external invaders and internal dissension. He had established a disciplined, flexible army and drove out both the Spaniards and the British invaders who threatened the colony. He restored stability and prosperity by daring measures, including inviting the return of planters and insisting that freed men work on plantations to renew revenues for the island. He also renewed trading ties with Great Britain and the United States.

Independence

The French government changed and the legislature began to rethink its decisions on slavery in the colonies. After Toussaint L'Ouverture created a separatist constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte sent an expedition of 30,000 men under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, to retake the island. Leclerc's mission was to oust Louverture and restore slavery. The French achieved some victories. Leclerc invited Toussaint Louverture to a parley, kidnapped him and sent him to France, where he was imprisoned at Fort de Joux. He died there in 1803 of exposure and tuberculosis ^[3] or malnutrition and pneumonia.

The native leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines, long an ally of Toussaint Louverture, defeated the French troops led by Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau at the Battle of Vertières. At the end of the double battle for emancipation and independence, former slaves proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue on 1 January 1804, declaring the new nation as Haiti, honoring one of the indigenous Taíno names for the island. It is the only nation born of a slave revolt ^[3].

Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor for life by his troops.^[4] He exiled the remaining whites and ruled as a despot. He was assassinated on 17 October 1806. The country was divided then between a kingdom in the north directed by Henri Christophe, and a republic in the south directed by a gens de couleur Alexandre Pétion. Henri Christophe is best known for constructing the Citadelle Laferriere, the largest fortress in the Western Hemisphere, to defend the island against the French. President Jean Pierre Boyer, also a gens de couleur, managed to reunify the two halves and extend control again over the western part of the island.

In July 1825, the king of France Charles X sent a fleet of fourteen vessels and troops to reconquer the island. To maintain independence, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France recognized the independence of the country in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs (the sum was reduced in 1838 to 90 million francs) - an indemnity for profits lost from the slave trade. The French abolitionist Victor Schoelcher wrote ‘Imposing an indemnity on the victorious slaves was equivalent to making them pay with money that which they had already paid with their blood.'

A long succession of coups followed the departure of Jean-Pierre Boyer. National authority was disputed by factions of the army, the elite class and the growing commercial class, now made up of numerous immigrants: Germans, Americans, French and English.

From 1915 On

The United States occupied the island from 1915 to 1934. From 1957 to 1986, the Duvalier family reigned as dictators. Turning the country into a hermit kingdom, with a personality cult, and excessive corruption. They created the private army and terrorist death squads known as Tonton Macoutes. Many Haitians fled to exile in the United States and Canada, especially French-speaking Quebec.

In December 1990, the former priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide won the election. His mandate began on 7 February 1991. In August 1991, Jean-Bertrand Aristide’s government faced a non-confidence vote within the Haitian Chamber of Deputies and Senate. 83 voted against him, and only 11 members voted in support of Aristide’s government. Following a US-backed Coup D'etat in September 1991 President Aristide was flown into exile. In accordance with Article 149, of Haiti’s Constitution of 1987, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Nerette was named Provisional President and elections were called for December, 1991. These were blocked by the international community and chaos resulted extending into 1994.

In 1994, Haitian General Raoul Cédras asked former U.S. President Jimmy Carter to help avoid a U.S. military invasion of Haiti.^[5] President Carter relayed this information to President Clinton, who asked Carter, in his role as founder of The Carter Center, to undertake a mission to Haiti with Senator Sam Nunn, D-GA, and former Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman Colin Powell.^[5] The team successfully negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders, and the peaceful entry of U.S. forces under Operation Uphold Democracy, paving the way for the restoration of Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president.^[5]

Aristide left the presidency in 1995. He was re-elected in 2000. His second term was marked by accusations of corruption. In 2004 a paramilitary coup backed by France, the USA and Canada, ousted Aristide a second time. (See 2004 Haitian rebellion) Aristide was removed by U.S. Marines from his home in what he described as a "kidnapping", and briefly held by the government of the Central African Republic to which the U.S. had decided to fly him. Aristide obtained his release and returned to the hemisphere shortly afterwards, although he has not returned to Haiti.

Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority. In February 2006, following elections marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations, René Préval, close to the still-popular Aristide and former president of the Republic of Haiti between 1995 and 2000, was elected.

The government of Haiti is a presidential republic, pluriform multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state directly elected by popular elections. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government.

Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987. The current president is René Préval.

The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (also known as MINUSTAH) has been in the country since the 2004 Haiti Rebellion.

Haitian politics have been contentious. Most Haitians are aware of Haiti's history as the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution. On the other hand, the long history of oppression by dictators, including François Duvalier, has markedly affected the nation. France and the United States have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. People's awareness of the threat of such intervention also permeates national life.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Haiti

The politics of Haiti takes place in a framework of a presidential republic. It is a pluriform multiparty system in which the President of Haiti is head of state directly elected by popular vote. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily. Therefore, the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of March 29, 1987. The country has a particularly high level of corruption.

Departments, arrondissements, and communes

Main article: Departments of Haiti

Further information: Arrondissements and communes of Haiti

Haiti is divided into 10 departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.

Departments of Haiti

The departments are further divided into 41 arrondissements, and 133 communes which serve as second and third level administrative divisions.

Geography

Map of Haiti

Main article: Geography of Haiti

Haiti is situated on the western part of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic (the latter shares a 360 kilometer (224 mi) border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is only about 45 nautical miles (50 mi; 80 km) away from Cuba and boasts the second longest coastline (1,771 km/1,100 mi) of any country in the Antilles, Cuba having the longest. Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys.

The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean. The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord.

Mangrove forest in Haiti

The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression which harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake Lac Azuei. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range, an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco), extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).

The country's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau. Haiti also includes various offshore islands. The historically famous island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve. Gonave Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Island of Cows) is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. It is a lush island with many beautiful sights. Also part of Haiti are the Cayemites and Ile de Anacaona.

Environment

Main article: Deforestation in Haiti

In 1925, Haiti was lush, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Since then, the population has cut down all but an estimated 2% of its original forest cover, and in the process has destroyed fertile farmland soils, contributing to desertification.^[6] Erosion has been severe in the mountainous areas. Most Haitian logging is done to produce charcoal, the country's chief source of fuel. The plight of Haiti's forests has attracted international attention, and has led to numerous reforestation efforts, but these have met with little success to date. Despite the large environmental crises, Haiti retains a very high amount of biodiversity in proportion to its small size.

Flamingo tongue on a purple sea fan from Arcadin Islands, Haiti. This sea snail is found living on various species of soft corals and sea fans.

The island of Hispaniola is home to more than 6,000 plants, of which 35% are endemic; and 220 species of birds, of which 21 of which are endemic. None of the birds are endemic to Haiti, but La Selle Thrush is nearly so. The country's high biodiversity is due to its mountainous topography and fluctuating elevations in which each elevation harbors different microclimates and its own specific native fauna and flora. The country's varied scenery include lush green cloud forests (in some of the mountain ranges and the protected areas), high mountain peaks, arid desert, mangrove forest, and palm tree-lined beaches.^[7]

2004 Haiti flood

Environmental Problems

In addition to soil erosion, deforestation has caused periodic flooding, as seen on 17 September 2004. Tropical storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.^[8] Earlier that year in May, floods killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.^[9]

Haiti was again pummeled by tropical storms in late August and early September 2008. The storms – Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike – all produced heavy winds and rain in Haiti. Due to weak soil conditions throughout Haiti, the country’s mountainous terrain, and the devastating coincidence of four storms within less than four weeks, valley and lowland areas throughout the country experienced massive flooding. Casualties proved difficult to count because the storm diminished human capacity and physical resources for such record keeping. Bodies continued to surface as the flood waters receded. A 10 September 2008 source listed 331 dead and 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.^[10] The grim state of affairs produced by these storms was all the more life threatening due to already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.^[11]

As was the case in 2004, the coastal city of Gonaives was hit especially hard by the 2008 storms.

The country is working to implement a biofuel solution to its energy problems.^[12] Also, environmental organizations such as the Peasant Movement of Papaye (formed by Jean-Baptiste Chavannes) are trying to find solutions for Haiti's environmental problems.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Haiti

Bas-Ravine, in the northern part of Cap-Haitien.

Haiti has remained the least-developed country in the Americas. It is an impoverished country, one of the world's poorest and least developed. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti now ranks 146th of 177 countries in the United Nations Human Development Index (2006). About 80% of the population were estimated to be living in poverty in 2003.^[1] Haiti is the only country in the Americas on the United Nations list of Least Developed Countries. Economic growth was negative in 2001 and 2002, and flat in 2003.

About 66% of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming,^[13] but this activity makes up only 30% of the GDP. The country has experienced little formal job creation over the past decade, although the informal economy is growing. Mangoes and coffee are two of Haiti's most important exports.^[13] It has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.

Foreign aid makes up approximately 30%-40% of the national government's budget. The largest donor is the United States followed by Canada, and the European Union also contributes. Venezuela and Cuba also make various contributions to Haiti's economy, especially after alliances were renewed in 2006 and 2007.

U.S. aid to the Haitian government was completely cut off in 2001-2004 after the 2000 election was disputed and President Aristide was accused of various misdeeds. After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored, and the Brazilian army led the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation.

Haiti is expected to receive debt forgiveness for about $525 million of its debt through the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative by mid-2009. ^[14]

Education

Main article: Education in Haiti

Of Haiti's 8.7 million inhabitants, just below half are illiterate. The literacy rate of 52.9% is the lowest in the region. Haiti counts 15,200 primary schools, of which 90% are non-public and managed by the communities, religious organizations or NGOs.^[15] The enrollment rate for primary school is 67%, of which less than 30% reach 6th grade. Secondary schools enroll 20% of eligible-age children. Charity organizations like Food for the Poor are currently working on building schools for children as well as providing them necessary school supplies.

The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education is provided by universities and other public and private institutions. It is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education.^[16]

A list of universities in Haiti includes:

University of Caraibe (Université Caraïbe) (CUC)
University of Haiti (Université d'État d'Haïti) (UEH)
University Notre Dame of Haiti (Université Notre Dame d'Haïti) (UNDH)
Université Chrétienne du Nord d'Haïti (UCNH)
Université Lumière / MEBSH
Université Quisqueya (UNIQ)
Ecole Supérieure d'Infotronique d'Haïti (ESIH)

ect...

Université Roi Henri Christophe
Université Publique de l'Artibonite aux Gonaïves (UPAG)
Université Publique du Nord au Cap-Haïtien (UPNCH)
Université Publique du Sud au Cayes (UPSAC)

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Haiti

Population of Haiti (in thousands) from 1961 to 2003

Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometer (650 per sq. mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Almost all Haitians are predominantly of African descent, but unlike the United States a distinction is made between between pure blacks and mulattoes. The number percentage of mulattoes is given as 5 % by the government but is estimated as being between 10 and 15 % by other sources. A small percentage (between 0.1 and 1 % consists of Europids (mostly of Arab and European origin). The Arab population numbers at about 4,700 or more. European-descended Haitians vary in origin; French, Britons, Spanish, Italian, German, and Portuguese ancestry is noted. Also a significant amount of Jewish ancestry. ^[17]) ^[18]. There is a small percentage of the population who are of Asian descent (mostly of Chinese origin) and number at 400.^[19]

Haitian diaspora

Like other poor nations in Latin America and the Caribbean, Haiti has witnessed a diaspora of both educated and poor citizens, some of whom have become illegal immigrants in nearby countries. Millions of Haitians live abroad, chiefly in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (especially in Montreal), France, Bahamas, French Antilles the Turks and Caicos, Venezuela, and Brazil.

In North America

There is a significant Haitian population in South Florida, specifically the Miami enclave of Little Haiti. New York City especially in Flatbush, East Flatbush, Springfield Gardens also has a thriving émigré community with the second largest population of Haitians of any state in the nation. There are also large and active Haitian communities in Boston, New Jersey, Providence, Rhode Island, Georgia, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. There is also a large Haitian community in Montreal-North. Others include Cuba, Jamaica, France, etc.

Languages

One of Haiti's two official languages is French, which is the principal written, spoken in schools and administratively authorized language. It is spoken by most educated Haitians and used in the business sector. The second is the recently standardized Haitian Creole,^[20] spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. Nearly all Haitians speak this French-based creole language that harbors significant African influence, as well as influence from Spanish, and Taíno. Residents near the border with the Dominican Republic have often learned enough Spanish for conversational speaking. Due to its ties to the United States, English has also become an important tool in the business sector.

The impact of armed violence on civilians

Most people in Haiti have been affected by armed violence. Those with direct personal experience make up 31% of the population, and most others also report suffering a range of serious hardships. In total, almost everyone (98%) have been affected in some way - either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed violence. ^[21]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Haiti

Main article: Roman Catholicism in Haiti

The main religion in Haiti is Christianity, with the Roman Catholic Church counting up to 90% of the faithful. Haitian Voodoo however is the religion specific to the country, and it is often combined with other forms of religiosity.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Haiti

"Tap tap" bus in Port-Salut.

Haiti has a long and storied history and therefore retains a very rich culture. Haitian culture is a mixture of primarily French, African elements, and native Taíno, with some lesser influence from the colonial Spanish. The country's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola. In nearly all aspects of modern Haitian society however, the European and African element dominate. Haiti is world famous for its distinctive art, notably painting and sculpture.

Carnival

Main article: Carnival

Music

Main article: Music of Haiti

The music of Haiti is influenced most greatly by European colonial ties and African migration (through slavery). In the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French, however Haitian music has been influenced to a significant extent by its Spanish-speaking neighbors, the Dominican Republic and Cuba, whose Spanish-infused music has contributed much to the country's musical genres as well. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from vodou ceremonical traditions and the wildly popular Compas. Compas (in French) or Kompa (in Creole) is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, played with an underpinning of tipico, and méringue (related to Dominican merengue) as a basic rhythm. Haiti didn't have any recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.

Cuisine

Main article: Haitian cuisine

The cuisine of Haiti originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, namely the French, African, and the Taíno Amerindians.

Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the Latin-Caribbean (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles) however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. Its primary influence derive from French, and African cuisine, with notable derivatives from native Taíno and Spanish culinary technique. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors to the island. Haitians use vegetables and meats extensively and peppers and similar herbs are often used for strengthening flavor. Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally and consequently Haitian cuisine tends to be moderately spicy, not mild and not too hot. In the country, however, many businesses of foreign origin have been established introducing several foreign cuisines into the mainstream culture. Years of adaptation have led to these cuisines (ie: Levantine from Arab migration to Haiti) to merge into Haitian cuisine.

Rice and beans in several differing ways are eaten throughout the country regardless of location, becoming a sort of national dish. They form the staple diet, which consists of a lot of starch and is high in carbohydrates. In the more rural areas, however, at great distances from the major cities, other foods are eaten to a larger degree such as mais moulu (mayi moulen); a dish comparable to cornmeal that can be eaten with sauce pois (sos pwa), a bean sauce made from one of many types of beans such as kidney), pinto, or garbanzo beans, or pigeon peas (known in other countries as gandules). Mais Moulu can be eaten with fish (often red snapper), or alone depending on personal preference. Tomato, oregano, cabbage, avocado, red and green peppers are several of the many types of vegetables/fruits that are used in Haitian dishes. Banane Pésée (Bannan Pézé), flattened plantain slices that are fried in oil (known as tostones in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico), are eaten frequently in Haiti as both a snack food and as part of a meal. They are frequently eaten with tassot and/or griot, which is deep-fried goat and pork respectively.

References

^ ^a ^b CIA - The World Factbook -- Haiti
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Haiti". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=263&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=53&pr.y=8. Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ ^a ^b ^c Paul Farmer, "Who removed Aristide?", http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n08/farm01_.html
^ Constitution of Haity [sic] New-York Evening Post July 15 1805
^ ^a ^b ^c The Carter Center, "Activities by Country: Haiti", http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/haiti.html, retrieved on 2008-07-17
^ "Forestry". http://countrystudies.us/haiti/53.htm. Retrieved on 2006-09-18.
^ Can Haiti dream of ecotourism ? - Paul Parisky, Kiskeya Alternativa's publications
^ "Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti". Orlando Sentinel. http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery. Retrieved on 2006-09-18.
^ Deforestation Exacerbates Haiti Floods
^ "UN seeks almost $108 million for Haiti floods". http://www.miamiherald.com/news/americas/haiti/story/680730.html. Retrieved on 2008-09-12.
^ "Haiti's government falls after food riots". http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN1228245020080413. Retrieved on 2008-09-12.
^ "Analysis: Haiti seeks a biofuel solution". United Press Internation. http://www.upi.com/Energy/Analysis/2007/07/02/analysis_haiti_seeks_a_biofuel_solution/8110/print_view/. Retrieved on 2007-07-02.
^ ^a ^b "CIA - The World Factbook – Haiti". United States. 2008-03-20. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html#People. Retrieved on 2007-12-20.
^ CIA World Fact Book
^ "Education: Overview". United States Agency for International Development. http://www.usaid.gov/ht/education.htm. Retrieved on 2007-11-15.
^ "Education in Haiti; Primary Education". http://www.buildingwithbooks.org/intra/Intl_Programs/profile_Haiti.html. Retrieved on 2007-11-15.
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php
^ [1]
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php
^ http://www.indiana.edu/~creole/creolenatllangofhaiti.html
^ Haiti, Opinion survey 2009 , by ICRC and Ipsos

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Government

Government of the Republic of Haiti - official website
United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)
Stabilization and Reconstruction Task Force (START), Government of Canada
Updates on nation rebuilding status in Haiti
Canadian Reconstruction and Development in Haiti

History

http://thelouvertureproject.org/ The Louverture project at thelouvertureproject.org

General information

Haiti at Encyclopaedia Britannica
Haiti entry at The World Factbook
Haiti at UCB Libraries GovPubs
A Country Study: Haiti from the U.S. Library of Congress (December 1989)
Haiti at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Haiti

Travel

Haiti travel guide from Wikitravel
Haiti photos

Maps

United Nations Map of Haiti

Other

Geographic locale

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Sovereign states

Commonwealth Realms	Antigua and Barbuda · Bahamas · Barbados · Grenada · Jamaica · St. Kitts and Nevis · St. Lucia · St. Vincent and the Grenadines

Commonwealth republics	Dominica · Trinidad and Tobago

Other republics	Cuba · Dominican Republic · Haiti

Dependencies and other territories by parent country

United Kingdom	Anguilla · Bermuda · British Virgin Islands · Cayman Islands · Montserrat · Turks and Caicos Islands

Netherlands	Aruba · Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire · Curaçao · Saba · Sint Maarten · Sint Eustatius)

France	Guadeloupe · Martinique · St. Barthélemy · St. Martin

United States	Navassa Island · Petrel Islands · Puerto Rico · Serranilla Bank · U.S. Virgin Islands

Countries and dependencies of North America

Several nations listed here straddle both North and South America or can also be considered Caribbean.

Sovereign states

Antigua and Barbuda · Bahamas · Barbados · Belize · Canada · Costa Rica · Cuba · Dominica · Dominican Republic · El Salvador · Grenada · Guatemala · Haiti · Honduras · Jamaica · Mexico · Nicaragua · Panama · St. Kitts and Nevis · St. Lucia · St. Vincent and the Grenadines · Trinidad and Tobago · United States

Dependencies

International membership

Organization of American States (OAS)

Antigua and Barbuda · Argentina · Barbados • Belize • Bahamas · Bolivia · Costa Rica · Cuba · Canada • Dominica · Dominican Republic · Ecuador · El Salvador · Grenada · Guatemala · Guyana · Haiti · Honduras · Jamaica · Mexico · Nicaragua · Panama · Paraguay · Peru · St. Lucia · St. Vincent and the Grenadines · St. Kitts and Nevis · Suriname · Trinidad and Tobago · United States · Uruguay · Venezuela

v • d • e Latin Union

Member Nations	Andorra · Angola · Bolivia · Brazil · Cape Verde · Chile · Colombia · Costa Rica · Côte d'Ivoire · Cuba · Dominican Republic · East Timor · Ecuador · El Salvador · France · Guatemala · Guinea-Bissau · Haiti · Honduras · Italy · Mexico · Moldova · Monaco · Mozambique · Nicaragua · Panama · Paraguay · Peru · Philippines · Portugal · Romania · San Marino · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Spain · Uruguay · Venezuela

Permanent Observers	Argentina · Holy See · Sovereign Military Order of Malta

Official languages	Catalan · French · Italian · Portuguese · Romanian · Spanish

v • d • e Member states and observers of the Francophonie

Members	Albania · Andorra · Armenia · Belgium (French Community) · Benin · Bulgaria · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cambodia · Cameroon · Canada (New Brunswick • Quebec) · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Cyprus¹ · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Dominica · Egypt · Equatorial Guinea · France (French Guiana • Guadeloupe • Martinique • St. Pierre and Miquelon) · Gabon · Ghana¹ · Greece · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Haiti · Laos · Luxembourg · Lebanon · Macedonia² · Madagascar · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Moldova · Monaco · Morocco · Niger · Romania · Rwanda · St. Lucia · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Switzerland · Togo · Tunisia · Vanuatu · Vietnam

Observers	Austria · Croatia · Czech Republic · Georgia · Hungary · Latvia · Lithuania · Mozambique · Poland · Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · Thailand · Ukraine

¹ Associate member. ² Provisionally referred to by the Francophonie as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.

v • d • e Caribbean Community (CARICOM)

Members	Antigua and Barbuda · Bahamas¹ · Barbados · Belize · Dominica · Grenada · Guyana · Haiti¹ · Jamaica · Montserrat² · St. Kitts and Nevis · St. Lucia · St. Vincent and the Grenadines · Suriname · Trinidad and Tobago

Associate members	Anguilla · Bermuda · Cayman Islands · British Virgin Islands · Turks and Caicos Islands

Observers	Aruba · Colombia · Dominican Republic · Mexico · Netherlands Antilles · Puerto Rico · Venezuela

¹ Member of the Community but not of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). ² British overseas territory awaiting entrustment to join the CSME.

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Haiti

Contents

History

17th century settlement

Treaty of Ryswick and slave colony

The Haitian Revolution

Independence

From 1915 On

Politics

Departments, arrondissements, and communes

Geography

Environment

Environmental Problems

Economy

Education

Demographics

Haitian diaspora

In North America

Languages

The impact of armed violence on civilians

Religion

Culture

Carnival

Music

Cuisine

See also

References

Further reading

External links

tags

	Gourde (in banking)
	.ht (abbreviation)
	Haitian (Haiti or its people or culture)

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