The Roman Empire is the name given to both the imperial domain developed by the
city-state of Rome and also the corresponding phase of that civilization, characterized by an
autocratic form of government. This article however is about the latter. The Roman Empire
succeeded the 500 year-old Roman Republic (510 BC - 1st century BC), which had been
weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla and the civil war of Julius Caesar against Pompey the Great.[4] Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to
Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator
(44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir Octavian at the
Battle of Actium (September 2, 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific
Augustus. (January 16, 27 BC).[5]
The Latin term Imperium Romanum (Roman Empire),
probably the best-known Latin expression where the word "imperium" denotes a territory, indicates the part of the world
under Roman rule. From the time of Augustus to the Fall of the Western
Empire, Rome's dominion covered all of the following: England and Wales; most of Europe (west of the Rhine and south of the Alps); coastal northern
Africa, together with the adjacent province of Egypt; the Balkans, the Black Sea, and Asia Minor; and
also much of the Levant. Hence the Imperium Romanum
subsumed, west-to-east, modern day Portugal, Spain,
England and France, Italy,
Albania and Greece, the Balkans, and Turkey; southward it embraced parts of the Middle East: present day Syria, Lebanon, and
more; thence southwestward it included the whole of ancient Egypt, then swept westward to contain the coastal regions of what are
today Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, out to the longitudes just west of Gibraltar. Most
of the people living there called themselves Romans, and lived under Roman law. Roman
expansion began long before the state was changed into a monarchy and reached its zenith under Emperor Trajan with the conquest of Dacia (i.e., modern Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Hungary, Bulgaria and Ukraine), in AD
106, and Mesopotamia in 116
(subsequently returned by Hadrian). At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled
approximately 5 900 000 km² (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of land surface, and so encompassed the Mediterranean Sea that the Romans called it "mare nostrum" - Latin for "our sea". Rome's
influence upon the culture, law, technology, arts, language, religion, government, military, and architecture of the
civilizations that arose from this ancient ancestor continues to this day.
The end of the Roman Empire is sometimes placed at 4 September AD 476, when the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire,
Romulus Augustus, was deposed, and not replaced. However, Diocletian, who retired in AD
305, was the last sole Emperor of an undivided Empire whose capital was the City of Rome. After the division of the Empire by
Diocletian into East and West, each branch continued to style itself as "The Roman Empire." The Western Roman Empire declined and
fell apart (see Decline of the Roman Empire) in the course of the
5th century. The Eastern Roman Empire, centered on Nova
Roma (founded by Constantine I on the Greek city of Byzantion), which would later adopt Greek as its main language, known
widely today as the Byzantine Empire, preserved Greco-Roman legal and cultural
traditions along with Hellenic and Orthodox
Christian elements for another millennium, until its eventual collapse with the conquest of Constantinople, as
Constantine's city become known, at the hands of the Ottoman Empire in 1453.
Evolution of Imperial Rome
Traditionally, historians make a distinction between the Principate, the period following
Augustus until the Crisis of the Third Century, and the Dominate, the period from Diocletian until the end of the empire in the
west. According to this distinction, during the Principate (from the Latin word princeps,
meaning "first citizen") the realities of absolutism were formally concealed behind republican forms; while during the Dominate
(from the word dominus, meaning "master or owner") imperial power was clearly shown, with golden crowns and ornate
imperial ritual. More recently, historians have established that the situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms
continued until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were
common from the earliest days of the Empire.
First emperor
The extent of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in
218 BC (dark red),
133 BC (light red),
44 BC (orange),
AD 14
(yellow), after AD 14 (green), and maximum extension under Trajan
117 (light green).
The extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan
117
No definitive answer exists regarding the identity of the first emperor of Rome. Under a purely technical point of view there
is no clear first emperor, as the title itself was not an official post in the Roman constitutional system—rather, it was
an amalgam of separate roles.
Julius Caesar was a Dictator Perpetuus
(dictator for life), which was a highly irregular form of dictator, an official position
in the Roman republic. By law, the rule of a dictator would normally never exceed 6 months. The form created by Caesar was
therefore quite contrary to the basic principles of the Roman Republic. Nevertheless, officially his authority rested upon this
republican title, however irregular it might have been, and therefore he is considered a republican official. At the very least,
he pretended to be one. Several senators, among them many former enemies who had been "graciously" pardoned by him, grew fearful
that he would crown himself and try to establish a monarchy. Accordingly, they conspired to assassinate him, and on the
Ides of March, 44 BC, the life-long dictator perished under
the blades of his assassins.
Octavian, his grand-nephew, adopted son and political heir, learned from the mistake of his
predecessor and never claimed the widely feared title dictator, disguising his power under republican forms much more
carefully. All this was intended to foster the illusion of a restoration of the Republic. He received several titles like
Augustus—the elevated one, and Princeps—translated as first citizen of the Roman republic or as first leader of the Roman
Senate. The latter had been a title awarded for those who had served the state well; Pompey had held that title.
In addition, Augustus (as he was named thereafter) was granted the right to wear the Civic
Crown of laurel and oak. However, it must be noted that officially, none of these titles or the Civic Crown, granted
Augustus any additional powers or authority; officially, he was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship.
Augustus also became Pontifex Maximus after the death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 13 BC. He also received
several additional and extraordinary powers without claiming too many titles. In the end, he only needed the authority itself,
not all the titles.
From the Republic to the Principate: Augustus (27 BC–AD 14)
- Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg
Forest, Arminius, and Publius
Quinctilius Varus
Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire
The Battle of Actium resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of
Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian had also executed
Cleopatra's young son and co-ruler, Caesarion. Caesarion may have been the (only) son of
Julius Caesar. Therefore, by killing Caesarion, Octavian removed any possibility of a male rival emerging with closer blood ties
to Julius Caesar. Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters.
These were intended to stabilize and pacify the Roman world and also to cement acceptance of the new regime.
Upon Octavian's accession as ruler of the Roman world, the Roman Senate gave Octavian the name "Augustus." He had already
adopted the title "imperator," commander-in-chief, as his first name. It was a
term that dated back to the days of the Republic and later evolved into "emperor."
As adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this name. "Caesar" was a component of his family name.
Julio-Claudian rule lasted for almost a century (from Julius Caesar in the mid 1st century BC to the emperor Nero in the mid 1st century AD). By the time of the Flavian Dynasty, and the reign of Vespasian, and that of his two sons, Titus and Domitian, the term "Caesar" had evolved, almost de facto, from a family name into a formal title.
Derivatives of this title (such as czar and kaiser) endure to this day.
The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around fifty) because of the civil wars, were reduced to
twenty-eight. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were
amalgamated, a fact hinted by the title Gemina (Twin).[6] Augustus also created nine special cohorts,
ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least three of them stationed at Rome. These cohorts became known as the
Praetorian Guard.
Octavian realized that autocracy and kingship were things that Romans had not experienced for centuries, and were wary of.
Octavian did not want to be viewed as a tyrant and sought to retain the illusion of the constitutional republic. He attempted to
make it seem as though the constitution of the Roman Republic was
still functional. Even Rome's past dictators, such as the brutal Lucius Cornelius
Sulla, had only ruled Rome for short spans of time, never more than a year or two (with the exception of Julius Caesar).
In 27 BC, Octavian officially tried to relinquish all his extraordinary powers to the
Roman Senate. In a carefully staged way, the senators, who by this time were mostly his
partisans, refused and begged him to keep them for the sake of the republic and the people of Rome. Reportedly, the suggestion of
Octavian stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and
Octavian, known as the First Settlement. This agreement gave Augustus legitimacy as an autocrat of the people, and ensured
that he would not be considered a tyrant, starting the long period that would be known as Pax
Romana.
Octavian split with the Senate the governorships of the provinces. The unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast
majority of the legions were stationed, were administrated by imperial legates, chosen by the emperor himself. These provinces
were classified as imperial provinces. The governors of the peaceful senatorial provinces were chosen by the Senate. These provinces were usually peaceful and only a
single legion was stationed in the senatorial province of Africa.
The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
Before the Senate controlled the treasury, Augustus had mandated that the taxes of the Imperial provinces were destined to the
Fiscus, which was administrated by persons chosen by, and answerable only to, Augustus. The
revenue of the senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the Aerarium, under the supervision
of the Senate. This effectively made Augustus richer than the Senate, and more than able to pay the salarium
(salary) of the legionaries, ensuring their continued loyalty.
This was ensured by the Imperial province of Aegyptus, which was incredibly
wealthy and also the most important grain supplier for the whole empire. Senators were forbidden to even visit this province, as
it was largely considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor himself.
Augustus renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a
second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a
tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and
people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and
gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved
for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public
interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these
powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a
single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part
of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in
the city, formerly under the control of the praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was
granted imperium proconsulare maius (power over all proconsuls), the right to interfere in any province and override the
decisions of any governor. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army.
All of these reforms were highly unusual in the eyes of Roman republican tradition, but the Senate was no longer composed of
the republican patricians who had the courage to murder Caesar. Most of these senators had died in the Civil Wars, and the
leaders of the conservative Republicans in the senate, such as Cato and
Cicero, had long since died. Octavian had purged the Senate of any remaining suspect elements and
planted the body with his own partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in all these transactions, and what backroom deals were
made, remains unknown.
Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Octavian ordered the invasions of Illyria,
Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and
Germania (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The
Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by German barbarians
under the leadership of Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of
Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the
permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North.
Sources
The age of Augustus is far more poorly documented than the late Republican period that preceded it. While Livy wrote his magisterial history during Augustus's reign and his work covered all of Roman history through
9 BC, only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican
and Augustan periods. Important primary sources for this period include:
Though primary accounts of this period are few, works of poetry, legislation and engineering from this period provide
important insights into Roman life. Archaeology, including maritime archaeology,
aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings,
and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and
military conditions.
Secondary sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio
Cassius, Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve
Caesars by Suetonius. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea in this
period, which became a province during Augustus's reign.
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (14–68)
-
Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia. None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was
succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, the son of his wife Livia from her first marriage. Augustus was a scion of the gens
Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient patrician
clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all
descended both from the gens Claudia, through Tiberius's brother Nero Claudius
Drusus, and from gens Julia, either through Julia the Elder, Augustus's
daughter from his first marriage (Caligula and Nero), or through
Augustus's sister Octavia Minor (Claudius). Historians
thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian".
Tiberius (14–37)
-
The early years of Tiberius's reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and
enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterized by paranoia and slander. In 19, he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular Germanicus. In
23 his own son Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series
of treason trials and executions. He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Lucius
Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26,
leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with relish. Sejanus also began to consolidate
his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece.
At this point he was "hoisted by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably
exploited for his own gain, was turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year.
The persecutions continued until Tiberius's death in 37.
Caligula (37–41)
-
At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been brutally murdered. The logical
successor (and Tiberius's own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus's son Gaius (better known as Caligula or "little boots").
Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly
lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability
that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis, which can
cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought
on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his
biographers to think he was insane.
Most of what history remembers of Caligula comes from Seutonius, in his book
"Lives of the Twelve Caesars." According to Seutonius, Caligula once planned
to appoint his favorite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade
Britain to fight the Sea God Neptune, but
changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried
on incestuous relations with his sisters. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the
Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been
dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Herod. He ordered people to be secretly killed,
and then called them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In
41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. The only
member of the imperial family left to take charge was his uncle, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.
Claudius (41–54)
-
Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. He was, however, neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the empire with reasonable ability. He improved the
bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He also proceeded with the
conquest and colonization of Britain (in 43), and
incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. He ordered the construction of a winter port for Rome, at Ostia, thereby
providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be
brought in inclement weather.
In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina
cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power
over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54. Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the
17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero.
Nero (54–68)
-
Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his
attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and
promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian
Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving cultural ties
with Greece. Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant and the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" in 64. A military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly
committed suicide in 68. His last words were "What an artist dies in me."
Rebellions
In peacetime it was relatively easy to manage the empire from its capital city, Rome. Rebellions were expected to occur from
time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and
simple bribes. A conquered tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would revolt. This would be a bad, but not a catastrophic,
event. The Roman legions were spread around the borders, and the rebel leader would - in
normal circumstances - have only one or two legions under his command. Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the
empire, and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in cases of a small local native
uprising, as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or
universally despised, these rebellions would be a local and isolated event.
During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive Jewish rebellion, this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions under the command of the generals like Vespasian were of a much greater number. Therefore a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the
general's family as hostages, to make certain of the latter's loyalty. In effect,
Nero held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis the governor of Ostia, who
were respectively the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. In normal circumstances this would be quite enough. In
fact, the rule of Nero ended with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard who had been
bribed in the name of Galba. It became all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of
Damocles, whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following
their example the legions at the borders would also increasingly participate in the civil
wars. This was a dangerous development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army.
The main enemy in the West were, arguably, the "barbarian tribes" beyond the Rhine and the
Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them, but ultimately failed and these "barbarians" were
greatly feared. But by and large they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst themselves, and were simply too divided to
pose a serious threat.
The empire of
Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent
(
c. 60 BC), superimposed over modern borders.
In the East lay the empire of Parthia (Persia).
Crassus, a member of the First
Triumvirate during the late republic, attempted an invasion in 53 BC, but was defeated by
Persian forces led by Surena in the Battle of Carrhae. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself
was ultimately impossible to destroy. Parthia would eventually become Rome's greatest rival and foremost enemy.
In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and
plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance because of the high number of
legions stationed there. All too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To control the western border
from Rome was easy, as it was relatively close. To control both frontiers, at the same time, during wartime, was somewhat more
difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West
and vice-versa. It was no longer enough to be a good administrator; emperors
were increasingly near the troops in order to control them and no single Emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time.
This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time again and many future emperors would follow this path to power.
Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)
-
The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief
period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in 31 BC) known as the year of the four emperors.
Between June of 68 and December of 69, Rome witnessed the
successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the
Flavian dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political
disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious
implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion.
Flavian (69–96)
-
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all
three have been criticized, especially based on their more centralized style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable
enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalization
of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.
Vespasian (69–79)
Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of
the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose
death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho, Vespasian
was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in Egypt,
placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were
able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed
as Emperor by the Senate.
Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the senate, he mostly continued the
weakening of that body that had been going since the reign of Tiberius. The degree of the Senate's subservience can be seen from
the post-dating of his accession to power, by the Senate, to July 1, when his troops proclaimed
him emperor, instead of December 21, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another
example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over the make up the Senate. He used that power to expel
dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200, at that low level because of the actions of
Nero and the year of crisis that followed, to 1000; most of the new senators coming not from Rome but from Italy and the urban
centers within the western provinces.
Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do
this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully
examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century
old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It
was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum); he also built a
forum whose centerpiece was a temple to Peace. In addition, he allotted sizable subsidies to
the arts, creating a chair of rhetoric at Rome.
Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces in his decades of office, having posts all across the empire, both
east and west. In the west he gave considerable favoritism to Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) in which he granted Latin rights to over three hundred towns and
cities, promoting a new era of urbanization throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made
to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also
extended the borders of the empire on every front, most of which was done to help strengthen the frontier defenses, one of
Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent
by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement
of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped. He mixed auxiliary units with men
from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited to help stop this. Also, to reduce further
the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, broke them
up along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from
exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania, in line with the Romanization of those areas.
Titus (79–81)
Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective
general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea, quelling the significant Jewish revolt
going on at the time. He shared the consul for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was
some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society,
he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith.
However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in
Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these
tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his father. He held the
opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100
gladiators and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81, at the
age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumored that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his
successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed.
Domitian (81–96)
-
All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate, because of their autocratic rule, however Domitian was the only
one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule; the former his father
having shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presenting difficulty even to obtain, were
unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an
affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was
