A deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the
family Cervidae. A number of broadly similar animals from related families
within the order Artiodactyla are often also
called deer.
Etymology
Depending on their species, male deer are called stags, harts, bucks or bulls, and
females are called hinds, does or cows. Young deer are called fawns or calves. A group of deer is
commonly called a herd. Hart, from Old English heorot ‘deer’,
is a term for a stag, particularly a Red Deer stag past its fifth year. It is not commonly
used, but Shakespeare makes several references, punning the sound alike "hart" and "heart"
for example in Twelfth Night. "The White Hart" and "The Red Hart" are common
English pub names, and the county Hertfordshire is named
after them.
The history of the word deer is quite interesting in that it was originally quite broad in
meaning and came to be specialized. In Middle
English, der (O.E. dēor) meant a beast or animal of any kind. [1] This general sense gave way to the modern sense by the end of the Middle English
period, around 1500. The German word tier and the Dutch word dier, cognates of English deer, still have the general sense of "animal." The
adjective of relation pertaining to deer is cervine.
Habitat
Deer are widely distributed, and hunted, with indigenous representatives in all continents
except Antarctica and Australia. Deer live in a variety of
biomes ranging from tundra to the tropical
rainforest. While often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live
in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer
species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest, and savanna
habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing
the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to eat. However, adequate forest or
brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow and thrive.
Small species such as the brocket deer and pudus of
Central and South America, and the muntjacs of Asia do occupy dense forests and are less often
seen in open spaces. There are also several species of deer that are highly specialized and live almost exclusively in mountains,
grasslands, swamps and "wet" savannas, riparian corridors surrounded by deserts. Some deer have a circumpolar distribution in
both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the reindeer (caribou) that live in Arctic
tundra and taiga (boreal forests) and moose that inhabit taiga and
adjacent areas.
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate North America lies in the
Canadian Rocky Mountain and Columbia Mountain Regions between Alberta and British Columbia where all five North American deer
species (White-tailed Deer, Mule deer,
Caribou, Elk, and Moose) can be
found. This is a region that boasts mountain slopes with moist coniferous forests and alpine meadows, and lowlands with a mosaic
of cropland and deciduous parklands within vicinity of lakes and rivers. The Caribou live at higher altitudes in the subalpine
meadows and alpine tundra areas. The White-tailed Deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills of the Canadian
Rockies due to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests allowing more deciduous vegetation to
grow.
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous
forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are among some of
the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the world where one can find Siberian Roe
Deer, Sika Deer, Caribou, Elk, and Moose. Just south of this region in China, one can find the unusual
Pere David's Deer. Deer such as the Sika Deer,
Thorold's Deer, Central Asian Red Deer,
and Elk have historically been farmed for their antlers by Han
Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic
peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Like the
Sami people of Finland and Scandinavia, the Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia,
and the Ussuri Region have also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of caribou.
The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern Asia and Southeast Asia in the Countries of
India, Nepal, and at one time, Thailand. Northern India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and Nepal's Terai Region consist of tropical
seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home to Chital, Hog Deer, Barasingha, Indian
Sambar, and Indian Muntjac. Just slightly north of
the Indo-Gangetic Plain is the Vale of Kashmir, home to the rare Kashmir Stag, a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer. The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical
seasonal moist deciduous forest and wet savanna that hosted populations of Hog Deer,
Schomburgk's Deer (now extinct), Eld's Deer,
Indian Sambar, and Indian Muntjac. Today, both the
Barasingha and Eld's Deer are endangered or rare. The
Hog Deer populations in Thailand are also rare. Chital and Barasingha live in large herds, and
Indian sambar may also be found in large groups. How all these deer can co-exist in one area is due to the fact that they prefer
different types of vegetation for food. These deer also share their habitat with various herbivores such as Asian elephants,
various antelope species (in India), and wild oxen.
Central and South America host various smaller brocket deer species, and Southeastern Asia hosts various smaller
muntjac species. Unlike the larger deer species mentioned above, these deer species are rather
solitary and tend to hide in dense cover and have lower population densities.
Australia has six introduced species of deer that have established sustainable
wild populations from Acclimatisation Society releases in the 19th Century. These are Fallow
Deer, Red Deer, Sambar Deer, Hog Deer, Rusa deer, and Chital Deer. Red
Deer introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and
Scottish stock were domesticated in deer farms by the late 1960s and are common farm animals
there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand but none are as widespread as Red Deer.[1]
Physical characteristics, diet, and reproduction
Deer differ from other ruminants in that they have antlers instead of horns. Antlers are bony growths that develop each year (usually in summer) and, in general, it is only
male deer that develop them (although there are exceptions). A young buck's first pair of antlers grow from two tiny bumps on
their head that they have had from birth. The antlers grow wrapped in a thick layer of velvet and remain that way for several
months, until the bone inside is hard; later the velvet is torn away (not shed contrary to popular belief). The one way that many
hunters are able to track main paths that the deer travel on is because of their "rubs". A rub is used to deposit scent from
glands near the eye and forehead and physically mark territory. Deer also have a Tapetum
lucidum which gives them sufficiently good night vision. During the mating season,
bucks use their antlers to fight one another for the opportunity to attract mates in a given herd. The two bucks circle each
other, bend back their legs, lower their heads, and charge.
A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). The gestation period is anywhere
up to ten months for the European roe deer. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with
white spots, though they lose their spots once they get older (excluding the Fallow Deer who keeps its spots for life). In the
first twenty minutes of a fawn's life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost free
of scent, so predators will not find it. Its mother leaves often, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its
mother must gently push it down with her foot. The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one week until it is strong enough to walk
with its mother. The fawn and its mother stay together for about one year. A male usually never sees his mother again, but
females sometimes come back with their own fawns and form small herds.
Deer generally have lithe, compact bodies and long, powerful legs suited for rugged woodland terrain. Deer are also excellent
swimmers. Their lower cheek teeth have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation. Deer
are ruminants or cud-chewers and have a four-chambered stomach. Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The
gland contains a strongly scented pheromone, used to mark its home range. Bucks of a wide
range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have a liver without a
gallbladder. The Chinese water deer is the only species
that differs from others in that they have no antlers and bear upper canines developed into tusks.
Deer are selective feeders. They are usually browsers, and primarily feed on leaves. They have small, unspecialized stomachs by herbivore standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than attempt to digest vast quantities of
low-grade, fibrous food as, for example, sheep and cattle
do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit, fungi, and lichens.
Antlers
All male deer have antlers that are shed and regrown each year from a structure called a
pedicle. Sometimes a female will have a small stub. The only female deer with antlers are
Reindeer (Caribou). Antlers grow as highly vascular spongy tissue covered in a skin called
velvet. Before the beginning of a species' mating season, the antlers calcify under the velvet and become hard. The velvet is
then torn away leaving hard bone antlers. After the mating season, the pedicle and the antler base are separated by a layer of
tissue, and the antler falls off.
Each species has its own characteristic antler structure, e.g. each white-tailed deer antler includes a series of tines
sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam. Mule deer (and black-tailed deer), species within the same genus as the
white-tailed deer, instead have bifurcated (or branched) antlers -- that is, the main beam splits into two, each of which may
split into two more.[2]
For Wapiti and Red Deer, a stag having 14 points is an
"imperial", and a stag having 12 points is a "royal". If the antlers deviate from the species' normal antler structure, the deer
is considered a non-typical deer.
Economic significance
Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, for which they are hunted and
farmed, is called venison. Deer organ meat is called umble.
See humble pie.
Musk, which comes from the gland on the abdomen of
musk deer, is used in medicines and perfumes. Deerskin is used for shoes, boots, and gloves,
and antlers are made into buttons and knife handles.
The Saami of Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern
Asia used reindeer for food, clothing, and transport.
The caribou is not domesticated or herded as is the case in Europe but is important to the Inuit. Most commercial venison in the
United States is imported from New Zealand.
Deer were originally brought to New Zealand by European settlers, and the deer population
rose rapidly. This caused great environmental damage and was controlled by hunting and poisoning until the concept of deer
farming developed in the 1960s. Deer farms in New Zealand number more than 3,500, with more than 400,000 deer in all.
Automobile collisions with deer impose a significant cost on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5 million deer-vehicle
collisions occur each year in, according to the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration. Those accidents cause about 150 deaths and $1.1 billion in property damage
annually.[3]
Taxonomy
Note that the terms indicate the origin of the groups, not their modern distribution: the water
deer, for example, is a New World species but is found only in China and Korea.
It is thought that the new world group evolved about 5 million years ago in the forests of North America and Siberia, the old world deer in Asia.
Subfamilies, genera and species
The family Cervidae is organized as follows:
- Subfamily Muntiacinae (Muntjacs)
- Subfamily Cervinae (True Deer, Old World Deer):
- Genus Cervus:
- Subgenus Cervus:
- Subgenus Przewalskium:
- Subgenus Sika:
- Subgenus Rucervus:
- Subgenus Rusa:
- Genus Axis:
- Subgenus Axis:
- Subgenus Hyelaphus:
- Genus Elaphurus:
- Genus Dama:
Pudú, the smallest species of deer in the world
- Subfamily Hydropotinae (Water Deer)
- Subfamily Odocoileinae/Capreolinae (New World Deer)
Hybrid deer
In Origin of Species (1859) Charles
Darwin wrote "Although I do not know of any thoroughly well-authenticated cases of perfectly fertile hybrid animals, I
have some reason to believe that the hybrids from Cervulus vaginalis and Reevesii [...] are perfectly fertile." These two
varieties of muntjac are currently considered the same species.
A number of deer hybrids are bred to improve meat yield in farmed deer. American Elk (or Wapiti) and Red Deer from the Old
World can produce fertile offspring in captivity, and were once considered one species. Hybrid offspring, however, must be able
to escape and defend themselves against predators, and these hybrid offspring are unable to do so in the wild state. Recent DNA,
animal behavior studies, and morphology and antler characteristics have shown there are not one but three species of Red Deer:
European Red Deer, Central Asian Red Deer, and
American Elk or Wapiti. (The European Elk is a different species and is known as moose in North
America.) The hybrids are about 30% more efficient in producing antler by comparing velvet to body weight. Wapiti have been
introduced into some European Red Deer herds to improve the Red Deer type, but not always with the intended improvement.
In New Zealand, where deer are introduced species, there are hybrid zones between Red Deer and North American Wapiti
populations and also between Red Deer and Sika Deer populations. In New Zealand Red Deer have been artificially hybridized with
Pere David Deer in order to create a farmed deer which gives birth in spring. The initial hybrids were created by artificial
insemination and back-crossed to Red Deer. However, such hybrid offspring can only survive in captivity free of predators.
In Canada, the farming of European Red Deer and Red Deer hybrids is considered a threat to native Wapiti. In Britain, the
introduced Sika Deer is considered a threat to native Red Deer. Initial Sika Deer/Red Deer hybrids occur when young Sika stags
expand their range into established red deer areas and have no Sika hinds to mate with. They mate instead with young Red hinds
and produce fertile hybrids. These hybrids mate with either Sika or Red Deer (depending which species is prevalent in the area),
resulting in mongrelization. Many of the Sika Deer which escaped from British parks were probably already hybrids for this
reason. These hybrids do not properly inherit survival strategies and can only survive in either a captive state or when there
are no predators.
In captivity, Mule Deer have been mated to White-tail Deer. Both male Mule Deer/female White-tailed Deer and male White-tailed
Deer/female Mule Deer matings have produced hybrids. Less than 50% of the hybrid fawns survived their first few months. Hybrids
have been reported in the wild but are disadvantaged because they don't properly inherit survival strategies. Mule Deer move with
bounding leaps (all 4 hooves hit the ground at once, also called "stotting") to escape predators. Stotting is so specialized that
only 100% genetically pure Mule Deer seem able to do it. In captive hybrids, even a one-eighth White-tail/seven-eighths Mule Deer
hybrid has an erratic escape behaviour and would be unlikely to survive to breeding age.
Hybrids do survive on game ranches where both species are kept and where predators are controlled by man.
Impact on popular culture
Heraldry
Deer are represented in heraldry by the stag or hart (or less often by the hind). Stag's heads and
antlers also appear as charges.
Examples can be found in the arms of Hertfordshire and its county town of
Hertford, both examples of canting arms (a heraldic
pun).
Several Norwegian municipalities have a stag or stag's head in their arms: Gjemnes,
Hitra, Hjartdal and Voss.
A deer appears on the arms of the Israeli Postal Authority (see Hebrew Wikipedia page [4])
Literature and art
"Nature and Appearance of Deer, and how they can be hunted with Dogs," taken from "Livre du Roy Modus," created in the
14th century
- For the role of deer in mythology, see deer in
mythology.
- The "Golden Hind" was an English galleon best known for its global circumnavigation between 1577 and
1580, captained by Sir Francis Drake.
- The book Fire Bringer is a fiction book that is about a young fawn who is born and goes
on a quest to save the deer kind who are called the Herla in the novel.
- In Christmas lore (such as in the narrative poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas"), reindeer are often depicted
pulling the sleigh of Santa Claus.
- One famous fictional deer is Bambi. In the Disney film
Bambi, he is a white-tailed deer, while in
Felix Salten's original book Bambi, A Life
in the Woods, he is a roe deer.
- The Pulitzer Prize-winning 1938 novel
The Yearling, written by Marjorie Kinnan
Rawlings, was about a boy's relationship with a baby deer, later adapted to a
children's film that was nominated for an Academy Award for Best
Picture.
- Saint Hubertus saw a stag with a crucifix between its
antlers while hunting on Good Friday and was converted to Christianity by the vision.
- In the Harry Potter series, the Patronus
Charm that Harry Potter conjures to repel Dementors is a silver stag. James
Potter, Harry's father, had an Animagus form as a stag. Also, Harry's mother
Lily, and subsequently Severus Snape's,
Patronus form was a doe.
- In one of the stories of Baron Munchhausen, the baron encounters a stag while
eating cherries and without ammunition, fires the cherry-pits at the stag with his musket, but it escapes. The next year, the
baron encounters a stag with a cherry tree growing from its head; presumably this is the animal
he had shot at the previous year.
- A Samurai warrior named Honda Tadakatsu famously
adorned deer antlers on his helmet.
- Deer have been a subject in Chinese paintings numerous times as a tranquility
symbol.
- In The Animals of Farthing Wood, a deer called The Great White Stag is the leader of all the animal residents of the
nature reserve White Deer
Park.
- In The Queen, a 14 point "Imperial" stag plays a role in the film.
- Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes. [1]
- Several German towns are called "Hirschberg", a name
composed of Hirsch (deer) and Berg (hill or
mountain).
- Among East European Jews, "Hirsh" - Yiddish for "stag" - was a common male name, and was among other others the name of several prominent
Rabbis; in this community there was, however, no equivalent female name. In contemporary
Israel, several Hebrew names for this animal are
commonly used as both male and female names. These include "Tzvi" (צבי) and "Eyal"(אייל) - two synonymous words for "stag";
"Tzviya" (צביה) and "Ayala" (איילה) - the respective parallel words for "Hind" or "Doe"; as well as "Ofer" (עופר) and
"Ofra"(עפרה), respectively the male and female words for the young of this animal - which are all commonly used as first names
among the Israeli population. In addition, there are Israelis having as their first name "Bambi",
derived from the well-known Disney animated film.
See also
References
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
