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A country of southeast Asia in the Malay Archipelago including Sumatra, Java, Timor, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, parts of Borneo and New Guinea, and many smaller islands. First settled by Austronesian-speaking peoples from the Asian mainland, the islands were the site of kingdoms allied with India before the arrival of Arab traders (14th century) who introduced Islam, which became the dominant religion. The Dutch East Indies Company controlled the territory from 1602 to 1798, when authority was turned over to the government of the Netherlands. In 1945 Indonesia declared its independence, which was finally achieved in 1949. Jakarta, on Java, is the capital and the largest city. Population: 235,000,000.
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
Indonesia
Austronesian-speaking peoples began migrating to Indonesia about the 3rd millennium BCE. Commercial relations were established with Africa about the 1st century CE, and Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences from India began to take hold. Indian traders also brought Islam to the islands, and by the 13th century it had spread throughout the islands — except Bali, which retained its Hindu religion and culture. Indonesia now has the largest Muslim population of any country. European influence began in the 16th century, and the Dutch gradually established control of Indonesia from the late 17th century until 1942, when the Japanese invaded. Sukarno declared Indonesia's independence in 1945, which the Dutch granted, with nominal union to The Netherlands, in 1949; Indonesia dissolved this union in 1954. The suppression of an alleged coup attempt in 1965 resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people the government claimed to be communists, and by 1968 Gen. Suharto had taken power. His government forcibly incorporated East Timor into Indonesia in 1975 – 76, with much loss of life. In the 1990s the country was beset by political, economic, and environmental problems, and Suharto was deposed in 1998. Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahid was elected president in 1999 but was replaced in 2001 by his vice president, Megawati Sukarnoputri, the eldest daughter of Sukarno. In 2004 she was succeeded by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. In 1999 the people of East Timor voted for independence from Indonesia, which was granted; after a period under UN supervision, it achieved full sovereignty in 2002. In 2004 a large tsunami generated by an earthquake off the western coast of Sumatra caused widespread death and destruction.
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Dictionary of Dance:
Indonesia
The diverse ethnic population of the nation is reflected in the rich variety of its traditional dance forms. These range from the stylized refinement of Javanese court dances to animal- and nature-inspired rituals. The best-known dance traditions originate from Bali and Central Java, and reflect Hindu/Buddhist influences from India. In Balinese dance forms, both theatrical and ceremonial, the dancer's stylized facial expressions and articulate gestures are reminiscent of Indian dance, although they adopt a more fixed posture of the body. In the many dance theatre forms, like topéng and barong, masks are a dominant feature. Literary sources for Balinese dance theatre draw on many aspects of S. and SE Asian tradition.
In Javanese court dances hand movements are unusually harmonious and delicate and the dancers' phrasing is extremely smooth, lacking stamping or percussive rhythms. Javanese dance theatre embraces many different genres, including wayang wong, which features the use of puppets, wayang topéng which uses masks, and langendria which is a form of dance opera.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
Indonesia
(ĭn'dənē'zhə) , officially Republic of Indonesia, republic (2005 est. pop. 241,974,000), c.735,000 sq mi (1,903,650 sq km), SE Asia, in the Malay Archipelago. The fourth most populous country in the world, Indonesia comprises more than 13,000 islands extending c.3,000 mi (4,830 km) along the equator from the Malaysia mainland toward Australia; the archipelago forms a natural barrier between the Indian and Pacific oceans. The capital and largest city is Jakarta, on Java.
Land and People
Consisting of the territory of the former Netherlands East Indies, Indonesia's main island groups are the Greater Sunda Islands, which include Java, Sumatra, central and S Borneo (Kalimantan), and Sulawesi; the Lesser Sunda Islands, consisting of Bali, Flores, Sumba, Lombok, and the western part of Timor; the Moluccas (Maluku), with Ambon, Seram, and Halmahera; and the Riau Archipelago. After years of dispute with the Dutch, W New Guinea (now Papua and West Papua) was formally annexed by Indonesia in Aug., 1969. The most important islands, culturally and economically, are Java, Bali, and Sumatra.
All the larger islands have a central volcanic mountainous area flanked by coastal plains; there are more than 100 active volcanoes. Earthquakes are frequent and, although not usually severe, can sometimes cause devastation. The animal life of Indonesia roughly forms a connecting link between the fauna of Asia and that of Australia. Elephants are found in Sumatra and Borneo, tigers as far south as Java and Bali, and marsupials in Timor and New Guinea. Crocodiles, snakes, and richly colored birds are everywhere. The tropical climate, abundant rainfall, and remarkably fertile volcanic soils permit a rich agricultural yield.
The population falls roughly into two groups, the Malayan and the Papuan, with many of the inhabitants east of Bali representing a transition between the two types. Within each group are numerous subdivisions, and cultural development ranges from the modern Javanese and Balinese to traditional tribes in Borneo, Sumatra, and New Guinea. The complex ethnic structure is the result of several great migrations many centuries ago, largely from Asia. The Chinese constitute by far the greatest majority of the nonindigenous population; they number about 2 to 3 million and play an important role in the country's economic life. There are smaller minorities of Arabs and South Asians.
More than 300 languages are spoken in Indonesia, but an official language, Bahasa Indonesia (a form of Malay), was adopted after independence and is now understood in all but the most remote villages. English is considered to be the country's second language, and Dutch is also spoken. Almost 90% of the population is Muslim, making Indonesia the largest Islamic nation in the world. Slightly less than 10% of the population is Christian, and about 2% is Hindu and 1% Buddhist. Hindus are concentrated principally on Bali, which is known for its unique culture. Animism, sometimes combined with Islam, is common among some groups.
Economy
Crude oil and natural gas are Indonesia's most valuable natural resources and have long been its major source of export revenue, but production has declined since the 1990s. Agriculture accounts for about 13% of the GDP and employs over 40% of the labor force. Indonesia is one of the world's major rubber producers; other plantation crops include cocoa, coffee, palm oil, coconuts, sugarcane, tea, tobacco, cinchona, cloves, sisal, and spices. Despite plantation cultivation, Indonesia has a wide landholding base; the majority of the people are largely self-sufficient in food. Rice is the major crop; cassava, corn, yams, soybeans, peanuts, and fruit are also grown. Horses and cattle are raised on some of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Fish are abundant, both in the ocean and in inland ponds.
In natural-resource potential, Indonesia is one of the wealthiest countries in the world. It has great timberlands; vast rain forests of giant trees (among the world's tallest) cover the mountain slopes, and teak, sandalwood, ironwood, camphor, and ebony are cut. Palm, rattan, and bamboo abound, and a great variety of forest products is produced. Indonesia is a major exporter of timber, accounting for nearly half of the world's tropical hardwood trade, but the rapid deforestation of Indonesia's hardwoods, mainly due to its expanding population and growing timber-related industries, has caused concern among international environmental groups and sparked ethnic conflict (particularly between immigrants and native Dyaks on Borneo). In addition, enormous out-of-control brush fires, started illegally during the dry season to clear land, have caused significant health, navigation, and economic hazards in some years.
Tin, nickel, bauxite, copper, coal, manganese, gold, and silver are mined, and salt is available in large quantities from shallow enclosed seashore lagoons. Iron and uranium are believed to exist in quantity but have not yet been exploited. Primarily a supplier of raw materials, the country began to industrialize and developed rapidly in the 1990s. The industrial sector includes the manufacture of textiles and clothing, building materials, chemical fertilizers, rubber tires, and electrical and electronic goods; there is also food, mineral, and wood processing. The government also promotes tourism, and Bali is a popular tourist destination.
Indonesia has attracted increased foreign investment in recent years, but corruption is widespread. Labor unrest has been a persistent problem due to the tensions between the predominantly ethnic Chinese business owners and a workforce made up almost entirely of ethnic Malays. The country's economy was severely impacted by the 1997–98 Asian financial crisis and it continues to experience high unemployment and inflation, although the nation began to rebound in 2000. The main exports are oil and gas, electrical appliances, textiles, wood and wood products, and rubber. Imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. Indonesia's main trading partners are Japan, Singapore, the United States, China, and South Korea.
Government
Indonesia is governed under the constitution of 1945 (which was restored in 1959) as amended. The president, who is both head of state and head of government, is popularly elected for a five-year term and is eligible for a second term. The vice president is similarly elected. The unicameral legislature consists of the 550-seat House of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat; DPR), whose members are popularly elected (by proportional representation) from multimember constituences. This body plus 195 indirectly selected members make up the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat; MPR), which meets every five years to determine national policy and annually to consider constitutional amendments and other changes. Prior to 2004 the president and vice president were chosen by the MPR. For over 30 years, until 1999, the government was essentially controlled by the quasi-official Golkar party. Administratively, the country is divided into 30 provinces, 2 special regions, and the special capital city district of Jakarta; these are subdivided into 440 regencies (districts).
History
Early History and Colonial Rule
Early in the Christian era, Indonesia came under the influence of Indian civilization through the gradual influx of Indian traders and Buddhist and Hindu monks. By the 7th and 8th cent., kingdoms closely connected with India had developed in Sumatra and Java; the spectacular Buddhist temples of Borobudur date from this period. Sumatra was the seat (7th–13th cent.) of the important Buddhist kingdom of Sri Vijaya. In the late 13th cent. the center of power shifted to Java, where the fabulous Hindu kingdom of Majapahit had arisen; for two centuries it held sway over Indonesia and large areas of the Malay Peninsula. A gradual infiltration of Islam began in the 14th and 15th cent. with the arrival of Arab traders, and by the end of the 16th cent. Islam had replaced Buddhism and Hinduism as the dominant religion. The once-powerful kingdoms broke into smaller Islamic states whose internecine strife made them vulnerable to European imperialism.
Early in the 16th cent. the Portuguese, in pursuit of the rich spice trade, began establishing trading posts in Indonesia, after taking (1511) the strategic commercial center of Malacca (see Melaka) on the Malay Peninsula. The Dutch followed in 1596 and the English in 1600. By 1610 the Dutch had ousted the Portuguese, who were allowed to retain only the eastern part of Timor, but the English competition remained strong, and it was only after a series of Anglo-Dutch conflicts (1610–23) that the Dutch emerged as the dominant power in Indonesia.
Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th cent. the Dutch East India Company steadily expanded its control over the entire area. When the company was liquidated in 1799, the Dutch government assumed its holdings, which were thereafter known in English as the Netherlands (or Dutch) East Indies. Dutch rule was briefly broken (1811–14) during the Napoleonic Wars when the islands were occupied by the British under T. Stamford Raffles. The Dutch exploited the riches of the islands throughout the 19th cent., but their rule did not go unchallenged by the Indonesians. In 1825, Prince Diponegoro of Java launched a long and bloody guerrilla war against the colonists, and in 1906 and again in 1908 the native rulers of Bali led their subjects in suicidal charges against Dutch fortifications.
Nationalism, Independence, and Sukarno
The Indonesian movement for independence began early in the 20th cent. The Indonesian Communist party (PKI) was founded in 1920; in 1927 the Indonesian Nationalist party (PNI) arose under the leadership of Sukarno. It received its impetus during World War II, when the Japanese drove out (1942) the Dutch and occupied the islands. In Aug., 1945, immediately after the Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Muhammad Hatta, another nationalist leader, proclaimed Indonesia an independent republic. The Dutch bitterly resisted the nationalists, and four years of intermittent and sometimes heavy fighting followed. Under UN pressure, an agreement was finally reached (Nov., 1949) for the creation of an independent republic of Indonesia. A new constitution provided for a parliamentary form of government. Sukarno was elected president, and Hatta became premier.
Although Sukarno had achieved a major accomplishment in uniting so many diverse peoples and regions under one government and one language, his administration was marked by inefficiency, injustice, corruption, and chaos. The rapid expropriation of Dutch property and the ousting of Dutch citizens (late 1950s) severely dislocated the economy; the country's great wealth was not exploited, and soaring inflation and great economic hardship ensued. A popular revolt, stemming from a desire for greater autonomy, began on Sumatra early in 1958 and spread to Sulawesi and other islands; the disorders led to increasingly authoritarian rule by Sukarno, who dissolved (1960) the parliament and reinstated the constitution of 1945, which had provided for a strong, independent executive (Hatta had resigned in 1956 following a conflict with Sukarno). The army, whose influence was strengthened by its role in quickly quelling the revolts, and the Communist party, whose ranks were growing very rapidly, constituted two important power blocs in Indonesian politics, with Sukarno holding the balance of power between the two.
In early 1962, Sukarno dispatched paratroopers to Netherlands New Guinea—territory claimed by Indonesia but firmly held by the Dutch—forcing the Dutch to agree to transfer that area to the United Nations with the understanding that it would pass under Indonesian administration in May, 1963, pending a referendum that was to be held by 1970. After the referendum, in Aug., 1969, Netherlands New Guinea was formally annexed by Indonesia, and its name was changed to West Irian (Irian Barat), then Irian Jaya, and later Papua. A guerrilla war was begun soon after by the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM; Free Papua Movement), a group seeking Papua's independence.
Meanwhile, Sukarno made (1963) a major propaganda issue of Indonesian opposition to the newly created Federation of Malaysia and staged guerrilla raids into Malaysian territory on Borneo, beginning a conflict that was waged intermittently for three years. Sukarno began to lean increasingly toward the left, openly summoning Communist leaders for advice, exhibiting hostility toward the United States, and cultivating the friendship of Communist China. In 1965 he withdrew Indonesia from the United Nations. There is reason to believe that he may have known in advance of the abortive Communist coup against the army that began in Sept., 1965, with the assassination of six high army officials.
The Suharto Regime
The coup was swiftly thwarted by army forces under General Suharto, who gradually assumed power (although retaining Sukarno as symbolic leader). Thousands of alleged Communists were executed; people everywhere took the law into their own hands and a widespread massacre ensued (Oct.–Dec., 1965). As many as 750,000 people may have been killed, including many ethnic Chinese; in E and central Java and in Bali entire villages were wiped out.
The new government steadily increased its power, aided by massive student demonstrations against Sukarno. General Suharto brought an end (1966) to hostilities against Malaysia, banned the PKI, reestablished close ties with the United States, and reentered (1966) the United Nations. Indonesia became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. On Mar. 12, 1967, the national assembly voted Sukarno out of power altogether and named General Suharto acting president.
Suharto was elected president in 1968, and reelected in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. His government reinstated an earlier Dutch colonial policy of “transmigration,” in which farmers from the overpopulated islands of Java and Bali were moved to underpopulated areas such as Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Indonesian New Guinea. The policy has had mixed results; though more than six million had moved by the 1990s, Java and Bali continue to be heavily populated. The economy began to grow rapidly in the 1970s, due mainly to expanded oil, gas, and timber exports; in the 1980s and 90s manufacturing for export became important.
In 1975–76, Indonesia annexed East Timor (a former Portuguese colony), and incorporated it as a province of the country; the takeover was not recognized by the United Nations. Following the annexation, separatists in the largely Roman Catholic province resisted Indonesian control, suffering substantial loss of life. Indonesia came under increasing criticism from the United States and international organizations for human-rights abuses in the area.
During Suharto's regime, his family held sway over much of Indonesia's economic life, and government corruption increased. While the economic conditions of many Indonesians improved, opposition to his policies continued to be suppressed. In Oct., 1997, the country was plunged into economic upheaval when its currency plummeted. The stock market followed soon after, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to provide the country with a $40 billion aid package in exchange for economic reforms. Struggling under a huge foreign debt and Suharto's reluctance to implement the IMF reforms, Indonesia's economy continued to worsen in 1998. Student protests and riots over rising prices broke out across the country, with increasing demands for Suharto to resign. Suharto stepped down in May, 1998, and his vice president, B. J. Habibie, assumed the presidency, pledging reform, clean government, and economic responsibility. In June, the government reached an agreement with foreign bankers on the rescheduling of nearly $80 billion in debt.
Early in 1999, Indonesia and Portugal reached an agreement permitting the people of East Timor to choose between limited autonomy within Indonesia and independence in a referendum. Fighting in East Timor between government security forces and anti-independence militias on one side and separatist guerrillas on the other increased in mid-1999 as the vote approached. In August, voters chose independence, but the territory descended into chaos as pro-Indonesian militias and the army engaged in a campaign of terror and brutality, killing proindependence Timorese and causing thousands to flee their homes. In Sept., 1999, after intense international pressure, President Habibie asked the United Nations to send a peacekeeping force to the area, and in October the United Nations agreed to take full control of East Timor until independence, which was achieved in 2002. Even as the situation in East Timor quieted down, however, calls for independence rose in other provinces, particularly Aceh, in N Sumatra, and Papua.
Meanwhile, in the June, 1999, parliamentary elections, the Indonesian Democratic party of Struggle of Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno, came in first with 34% of the vote; President Habibie's Golkar party came in second, with 22%. In the Oct., 1999, presidential elections, Abdurrahman Wahid, of the National Awakening party, became the country's first democratically elected president after Megawati failed to build the coalition needed to win; she was chosen by parliament as vice president. A Muslim theologian and religious leader, as well as a defender of human rights and religious tolerance, Wahid moved to increase civilian control over the military, which lost influence and prestige following Suharto's fall and the East Timor debacle. He also was forced to deal with often vociferous opposition in parliament. The economy began to revive in 2000, although the currency (rupiah) suffered a sharp loss in value.
In Feb., 2001, the parliament censured the president, who was implicated in two corruption scandals. Wahid, who had alienated Megawati and suffered a drop in popularity, was censured again in April. Although he was subsequently cleared of wrongdoing in the scandals, the parliament voted in July to remove him from office. Megawati succeeded Wahid as president. Subsequently the parliament passed laws granting limited autonomy (including substantial control over natural resources) to Aceh and Papua, in the hope of undercutting local secessionist movements, but violence in both provinces has continued. An agreement was signed with the Aceh rebels in Dec., 2002, raising hopes for peace that were dashed six months later when Indonesia ended what it regarded as fruitless talks and resumed military action.
Relations were strained with Malaysia in 2002 when as many as 400,000 Indonesians were forcibly deported under a tough new anti-illegal-immigrant law. Constitutional amendments passed in the same year called for the direct election of the president and the elimination of the seats reserved for the military in the national legislature. Both amendments took effect in 2004. In Oct., 2002, a terrorist bombing at a night club in Bali that was frequented by foreigners killed more than 200 people. The bombing was apparently by Indonesian Islamic radicals linked to Al Qaeda. Despite economic improvement since Megawati became president, corruption remains a major problem, having worsened significantly since Suharto's fall. A proposal in 2003 to split Papua into three provinces sparked new unrest there, and after legals appeals Papua was divided (2004) into Papua and West Irian Jaya (now West Papua).
Legislative elections in Apr., 2004, were a setback for Megawati's party, which came in second to Golkar; the latter won slightly more than a fourth of the seats. Seven parties secured significant blocks of seats. Megawati subsequently lost the presidency (Sept., 2004) to Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, a former general and security minister and the candidate of the Democrat party, after a runoff in Sept., 2004. The election was the first time that Indonesians were able to elect a president directly.
In Dec., 2004, a huge tsunami caused by an earthquake off NW Sumatra devastated Aceh, killing some 130,000 people, and a subsequent earthquake in March, caused much destruction on the islands of Simeulue and Nias, west of Sumatra. There was a polio outbreak in Java in May, 2005, that was linked to the persistence of the disease in W Africa and was believed to have been transmitted to Muslim pilgrims at Mecca. Indonesia began a massive immunization campaign in an attempt to limit polio's spread, but new cases continued to appear in the succeeding months. Acehnese rebels signed a peace agreement with the government in Aug., 2005, and subsequently disarmed in exchange for the establishment of local self-government. In May, 2006, an earthquake centered S of Yogyakarta in central Java killed some 5,800 people; a July quake off W Java caused a tsunami that killed some 400 people. Heavy rains caused massive flooding in the Jakarta area in Feb., 2007, forcing as many as 400,000 people from their homes. A series of severe earthquakes in Sept., 2007, caused caused much damage in W Sumatra.
Bibliography
See G. M. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (1952, repr. 1970); C. A. Fisher, South-east Asia (1964); G. Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (1968); B. Dahm, History of Indonesia in the Twentieth Century (tr. 1971); H. R. Heekeren, The Stone Age of Indonesia (2d ed. 1972); W. T. Neill, Twentieth-Century Indonesia (1973); L. Palmier, ed., Understanding Indonesia (1985); D. Wilhelm, Emerging Indonesia (1986).
Geography:
Indonesia
- Indonesia was under Dutch control from the beginning of the seventeenth century to World War II, when Japan occupied it. It proclaimed independence in 1945. The islands were called the Dutch East Indies from 1799 until their independence.
- The volcanic (see volcano) island of Krakatoa, between Sumatra and Java, erupted in 1883, creating a tsunami that caused great destruction to its neighboring islands. It sent volcanic debris as far as Madagascar.
- Rich in nutmeg and cloves, the Moluccas, in the eastern part of the archipelago, are known as the Spice Islands.
- Indonesia is the principal oil producer in the Far East and Pacific.
- Indonesia is the largest
Muslim nation in the world. - In 1975, Indonesia invaded the former Dutch colony of East Timor and, despite international condemnation, annexed it in 1976. In 1999, East Timorese voted overwhelmingly for independence in a U.N.-sponsored referendum. Pro-Indonesia militias then rampaged through East Timor until the arrival of international peacekeepers. Independence was declared in May 2001.
- A severe economic downturn in 1998 triggered public protests against corruption and cronyism in the government and led to the resignation of the country's longtime president, General Suharto.
Maps:
Indonesia
Local Time:
Indonesia
Local Time: Oct 7, 12:51 PM
| Regions: | (Western) |
| Regions: | (Central) |
| Regions: | (Eastern) |
Statistics:
Indonesia
Introduction
| Background: | The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th century; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current issues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism, implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable for human rights violations, and controlling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic peace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to democratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face a low intensity separatist guerilla movement in Papua. |
Geography
| Location: | Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean |
| Geographic coordinates: | 5 00 S, 120 00 E |
| Map references: | Southeast Asia |
| Area: | total: 1,919,440 sq km land: 1,826,440 sq km water: 93,000 sq km |
| Area - comparative: | slightly less than three times the size of Texas |
| Land boundaries: | total: 2,830 km border countries: Timor-Leste 228 km, Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km |
| Coastline: | 54,716 km |
| Maritime claims: | measured from claimed archipelagic straight baselines territorial sea: 12 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm |
| Climate: | tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands |
| Terrain: | mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior mountains |
| Elevation extremes: | lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Puncak Jaya 5,030 m |
| Natural resources: | petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver |
| Land use: | arable land: 11.03% permanent crops: 7.04% other: 81.93% (2005) |
| Irrigated land: | 45,000 sq km (2003) |
| Natural hazards: | occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes, forest fires |
| Environment - current issues: | deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires |
| Environment - international agreements: | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements |
| Geography - note: | archipelago of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited); straddles equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean |
People
| Population: | 234,693,997 (July 2007 est.) |
| Age structure: | 0-14 years: 28.7% (male 34,309,176/female 33,148,341) 15-64 years: 65.6% (male 77,132,708/female 76,731,481) 65 years and over: 5.7% (male 5,956,471/female 7,415,820) (2007 est.) |
| Median age: | total: 26.9 years male: 26.4 years female: 27.4 years (2007 est.) |
| Population growth rate: | 1.213% (2007 est.) |
| Birth rate: | 19.65 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Death rate: | 6.25 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Net migration rate: | -1.27 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Sex ratio: | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.035 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.005 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.803 male(s)/female total population: 1.001 male(s)/female (2007 est.) |
| Infant mortality rate: | total: 32.14 deaths/1,000 live births male: 37.39 deaths/1,000 live births female: 26.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) |
| Life expectancy at birth: | total population: 70.16 years male: 67.69 years female: 72.76 years (2007 est.) |
| Total fertility rate: | 2.38 children born/woman (2007 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: | 0.1% (2003 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: | 110,000 (2003 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - deaths: | 2,400 (2003 est.) |
| Major infectious diseases: | degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and chikungunya are high risks in some locations note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified among birds in this country or surrounding region; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds (2007) |
| Nationality: | noun: Indonesian(s) adjective: Indonesian |
| Ethnic groups: | Javanese 40.6%, Sundanese 15%, Madurese 3.3%, Minangkabau 2.7%, Betawi 2.4%, Bugis 2.4%, Banten 2%, Banjar 1.7%, other or unspecified 29.9% (2000 census) |
| Religions: | Muslim 86.1%, Protestant 5.7%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 1.8%, other or unspecified 3.4% (2000 census) |
| Languages: | Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay), English, Dutch, local dialects (the most widely spoken of which is Javanese) |
| Literacy: | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 90.4% male: 94% female: 86.8% (2004 est.) |
Government
| Country name: | conventional long form: Republic of Indonesia conventional short form: Indonesia local long form: Republik Indonesia local short form: Indonesia former: Netherlands East Indies; Dutch East Indies |
| Government type: | republic |
| Capital: | name: Jakarta geographic coordinates: 6 10 S, 106 49 E time difference: UTC+7 (12 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) note: Indonesia is divided into three time zones |
| Administrative divisions: | 30 provinces (propinsi-propinsi, singular - propinsi), 2 special regions* (daerah-daerah istimewa, singular - daerah istimewa), and 1 special capital city district** (daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Banten, Bengkulu, Gorontalo, Irian Jaya Barat, Jakarta Raya**, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung, Kepulauan Riau, Lampung, Maluku, Maluku Utara, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Papua, Riau, Sulawesi Barat, Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Sulawesi Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatera Utara, Yogyakarta* note: following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1 January 2001, the 440 districts or regencies have become the key administrative units responsible for providing most government services |
| Independence: | 17 August 1945 (declared) note: recognized by the Netherlands on 27 December 1949; in August 2005, the Netherlands announced it recognized de facto Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 |
| National holiday: | Independence Day, 17 August (1945) |
| Constitution: | August 1945; abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959; series of amendments concluded in 2002 |
| Legal system: | based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures and election codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction |
| Suffrage: | 17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age |
| Executive branch: | chief of state: President Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO (since 20 October 2004); Vice President Muhammad Yusuf KALLA (since 20 October 2004); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO (since 20 October 2004); Vice President Muhammad Yusuf KALLA (since 20 October 2004) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president were elected for five-year terms (eligible for a second term) by direct vote of the citizenry; last held 20 September 2004 (next to be held in 2009) election results: Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO elected president receiving 60.6% of vote; MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri received 39.4% |
| Legislative branch: | House of Representatives or Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) (550 seats; members elected to serve five-year terms); House of Regional Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or DPD), constitutionally mandated role includes providing legislative input to DPR on issues affecting regions; People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or MPR) has role in inaugurating and impeaching president and in amending constitution; consists of popularly-elected members in DPR and DPD; MPR does not formulate national policy elections: last held 5 April 2004 (next to be held in 2009) election results: percent of vote by party - Golkar 21.6%, PDI-P 18.5%, PKB 10.6%, PPP 8.2%, PD 7.5%, PKS 7.3%, PAN 6.4%, others 19.9%; seats by party - Golkar 128, PDI-P 109, PPP 58, PD 55, PAN 53, PKB 52, PKS 45, others 50 note: because of election rules, the number of seats won does not always follow the percentage of votes received by parties |
| Judicial branch: | Supreme Court or Mahkamah Agung (justices appointed by the president from a list of candidates selected by the legislature); a separate Constitutional Court or Mahkamah Konstitusi was invested by the president on 16 August 2003; in March 2004 the Supreme Court assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the lower court system from the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights; Labor Court under supervision of Supreme Court began functioning in January 2006 |
| Political parties and leaders: | Crescent Moon and Star Party or PBB [MS KABAN]; Democratic Party or PD [Hadi UTOMO]; Functional Groups Party or Golkar [Yusuf KALLA]; Indonesia Democratic Party-Struggle or PDI-P [MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri]; National Awakening Party or PKB [MUHAIMIN Iskander]; National Mandate Party or PAN [Sutrisno BACHIR]; Prosperous Justice Party or PKS [Tifatul SEMBIRING]; United Development Party or PPP [Suryadharma ALI] |
| Political pressure groups and leaders: | NA |
| International organization participation: | APEC, APT, ARF, AsDB, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PIF (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIL, UNOMIG, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO |
| Diplomatic representation in the US: | chief of mission: Ambassador SUDJADNAN Parnohadiningrat chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 775-5200 FAX: [1] (202) 775-5365 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco |
| Diplomatic representation from the US: | chief of mission: Ambassador Cameron R. HUME embassy: Jalan 1 Medan Merdeka Selatan 4-5, Jakarta 10110 mailing address: Unit 8129, Box 1, FPO AP 96520 telephone: [62] (21) 3435-9000 FAX: [62] (21) 3435-9922 consulate(s) general: Surabaya |
| Flag description: | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red |
Economy
| Economy - overview: | Indonesia, a vast polyglot nation, has struggled to overcome the Asian financial crisis, and still grapples with persistent poverty and unemployment, inadequate infrastructure, endemic corruption, a fragile banking sector, a poor investment climate, and unequal resource distribution among regions. The country continues the slow work of rebuilding from the devastating December 2004 tsunami and from an earthquake in central Java in May 2006 that caused over $3 billion in damage and losses. Declining oil production and lack of new exploration investment turned Indonesia into a net oil importer in 2004. The cost of subsidizing domestic fuel placed increasing strain on the budget in 2005, and combined with indecisive monetary policy, contributed to a run on the currency in August, prompting the government to enact a 126% average fuel price hike in October. The resulting inflation and interest rate hikes dampened growth through mid-2006, while large increases in rice prices pushed millions more people under the national poverty line. Economic reformers introduced three policy packages in 2006 to improve the investment climate, infrastructure, and the financial sector, but translating them into reality has not been easy. Keys to future growth remain internal reform, building up the confidence of international and domestic investors, and strong global economic growth. Significant progress has been made in rebuilding Aceh after the devastating December 2004 tsunami, and the province now shows more economic activity than before the disaster. Unfortunately, Indonesia suffered new disasters in 2006 and early 2007 including: a major earthquake near Yogyakarta, an industrial accident in Sidoarjo, East Java that created a "mud volcano," a tsunami in South Java, and major flooding in Jakarta, all of which caused additional damages in the billions of dollars. Donors are assisting Indonesia with its disaster mitigation and early warning efforts. |
| GDP (purchasing power parity): | $948.3 billion (2006 est.) |
| GDP (official exchange rate): | $264.7 billion (2006 est.) |
| GDP - real growth rate: | 5.5% (2006 est.) |
| GDP - composition by sector: | agriculture: 12.9% industry: 47% services: 40.1% (2006 est.) |
| Labor force: | 106.4 million (2006 est.) |
| Labor force - by occupation: | agriculture: 43.3% industry: 18% services: 38.7% (2004 est.) |
| Unemployment rate: | 12.5% (2006 est.) |
| Population below poverty line: | 17.8% (2006) |
| Household income or consumption by percentage share: | lowest 10%: 3.6% highest 10%: 28.5% (2002) |
| Distribution of family income - Gini index: | 34.8 (2004) |
| Inflation rate (consumer prices): | 13.1% (2006 est.) |
| Investment (gross fixed): | 24% of GDP (2006 est.) |
| Budget: | revenues: $74.18 billion expenditures: $77.39 billion (2006 est.) |
| Public debt: | 38.6% of GDP (2006 est.) |
| Agriculture - products: | rice, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra; poultry, beef, pork, eggs |
| Industries: | petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, footwear, mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood, rubber, food, tourism |
| Industrial production growth rate: | 2.6% (2006 est.) |
| Electricity - production: | 120.3 billion kWh (2005 est.) |
| Electricity - consumption: | 105.3 billion kWh (2005 est.) |
| Electricity - exports: | 0 kWh (2005 est.) |
| Electricity - imports: | 0 kWh (2005 est.) |
| Oil - production: | 1.136 million bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - consumption: | 1.168 million bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - exports: | 474,000 bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - imports: | 424,000 bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - proved reserves: | 4.85 billion bbl (1 January 2006) |
| Current account balance: | $9.686 billion (2006 est.) |
| Exports: | $102.7 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) |
| Exports - commodities: | oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, textiles, rubber |
| Exports - partners: | Japan 19.4%, Singapore 11.8%, US 11.5%, China 7.7%, South Korea 6.4%, Taiwan 4.2% (2006) |
| Imports: | $73 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) |
| Imports - commodities: | machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs |
| Imports - partners: | Singapore 29.6%, China 11.2%, Japan 8.8%, South Korea 5.3%, Malaysia 4.8% (2006) |
| Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: | $42.42 billion (2006 est.) |
| Debt - external: | $130.2 billion (2006 est.) |
| Economic aid - recipient: | ODA, $2.524 billion (2006 est.) note: Indonesia ended 2006 with $67 billion in official foreign debt (about 25% of GDP), with Japan ($25 billion), the World Bank ($8.5 billion) and the Asian Development Bank ($8.4 billion) as the largest creditors; about $6 billion in grant assistance was pledged to rebuild Aceh after the December 2004 tsunami; President YUDHYONO ended the Consultative Group on Indonesia forum in January 2007 (2005) |
| Currency (code): | Indonesian rupiah (IDR) |
| Exchange rates: | Indonesian rupiah per US dollar - 9,159.3 (2006), 9,704.7 (2005), 8,938.9 (2004), 8,577.1 (2003), 9,311.2 (2002) |
| Fiscal year: | calendar year |
Transportation
| Airports: | 652 (2007) |
| Airports - with paved runways: | total: 158 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 15 1,524 to 2,437 m: 51 914 to 1,523 m: 49 under 914 m: 39 (2007) |
| Airports - with unpaved runways: | total: 494 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 27 under 914 m: 462 (2007) |
| Heliports: | 17 (2007) |
| Pipelines: | condensate 944 km; condensate/gas 135 km; gas 9,175 km; oil 7,684 km; oil/gas/water 89 km; refined products 1,367 km (2006) |
| Railways: | total: 6,458 km narrow gauge: 5,961 km 1.067-m gauge (125 km electrified); 497 km 0.750-m gauge (2006) |
| Roadways: | total: 368,360 km paved: 213,649 km unpaved: 154,711 km (2002) |
| Waterways: | 21,579 km (2007) |
| Merchant marine: | total: 965 ships (1000 GRT or over) 4,409,198 GRT/5,825,591 DWT by type: bulk carrier 53, cargo 522, chemical tanker 25, container 66, liquefied gas 7, livestock carrier 1, passenger 44, passenger/cargo 67, petroleum tanker 155, refrigerated cargo 2, roll on/roll off 11, specialized tanker 8, vehicle carrier 4 foreign-owned: 45 (China 2, France 1, Japan 5, South Korea 1, Philippines 1, Singapore 26, Switzerland 3, Taiwan 2, Thailand 1, UK 3) registered in other countries: 105 (Bahamas 3, Cambodia 1, Hong Kong 7, Liberia 1, Panama 37, Singapore 56, unknown 5) (2007) |
| Ports and terminals: | Banjarmasin, Belawan, Ciwandan, Krueg Geukueh, Palembang, Panjang, Sungai Pakning, Tanjung Perak, Tanjung Priok |
Military
| Military branches: | Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI): Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, includes marines, naval air arm), Air Force (TNI-Angkatan Udara (TNI-AU)), National Air Defense Command (Kommando Pertahanan Udara Nasional, Kohanudnas) note: the TNI is directly subordinate to the president but the government is making efforts to incorporate it into the Department of Defense (2007) |
| Military service age and obligation: | 18 years of age for selective compulsory and voluntary military service; 2-year conscript service obligation, with reserve obligation to age 45 (2006) |
| Manpower available for military service: | males age 18-49: 60,543,028 females age 18-49: 59,981,730 (2005 est.) |
| Manpower fit for military service: | males age 18-49: 48,687,234 females age 18-49: 50,252,911 (2005 est.) |
| Manpower reaching military service age annually: | males age 18-49: 2,201,047 females age 18-49: 2,139,573 (2005 est.) |
| Military expenditures - percent of GDP: | 3% (2005 est.) |
Transnational Issues
| Disputes - international: | Indonesia has a stated foreign policy objective of establishing stable fixed land and maritime boundaries with all of its neighbors; Timor-Leste-Indonesia Boundary Committee has resolved all but a small portion of the land boundary, but discussions on maritime boundaries are stalemated over sovereignty of the uninhabited coral island of Pulau Batek/Fatu Sinai in the north and alignment with Australian claims in the south; many refugees from Timor-Leste who left in 2003 still reside in Indonesia and refuse repatriation; a 1997 treaty between Indonesia and Australia settled some parts of their maritime boundary but outstanding issues remain; ICJ's award of Sipadan and Ligitan islands to Malaysia in 2002 left the sovereignty of Unarang rock and the maritime boundary in the Ambalat oil block in the Celebes Sea in dispute; the ICJ decision has prompted Indonesia to assert claims to and to establish a presence on its smaller outer islands; Indonesia and Singapore continue to work on finalization of their 1973 maritime boundary agreement by defining unresolved areas north of Indonesia's Batam Island; Indonesian secessionists, squatters, and illegal migrants create repatriation problems for Papua New Guinea; piracy remains a problem in the Malacca Strait; maritime delimitation talks continue with Palau; Indonesian groups challenge Australia's claim to Ashmore Reef; Australia has closed parts of the Ashmore and Cartier Reserve to Indonesian traditional fishing and placed restrictions on certain catches |
| Refugees and internally displaced persons: | IDPs: 200,000-350,000 (government offensives against rebels in Aceh; most IDPs in Aceh, Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi Provinces, and Maluku), 300,000 (December 2006 floods in Aceh regions) (2006) |
| Illicit drugs: | illicit producer of cannabis largely for domestic use; producer of methamphetamine and ecstasy |
Local Cuisine:
Indonesia
A Typical Independence Day Menu |
Recipes
Nasi Goreng (Fried Rice)Kelapa Susu (Coconut Milk)
Rujak (Spicy Fruit Salad, Indonesian National Salad)
Uli Petataws (Sweet Potato Fritters)
Sarikayo Telor (Coconut Milk Pudding)
Sambal Kecap (Chili and Soy Sauce)
Es Pokat or Es Avocad, Bali (Avocado Drink)
Tahu Goreng (Fried Tofu)
Pisang Goreng (Fried Banana Cakes)
Teh Halia (Hot Ginger Tea, Ambon)
Nasi Kuning (Yellow Rice)
Gado Gado (Vegetable Salad with Peanut Sauce)
Nasi Jagung (Corn Rice)
Geographic Setting and Environment
The Republic of Indonesia consists of five large islands and thousands of smaller islands (about 6,000 of which are inhabited), with a total area of 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,100 square miles). The country's soil and climate support a number of agricultural crops, with sugar being the largest commercial crop. Indonesia is the world's third largest producer of coffee (after Brazil and Colombia), the the second-largest producer of palm oil (after Malaysia). Rice production increased during the 1980s and 1990s. Because of improved agricultural techniques, Indonesia now grows almost enough rice to meet the country's demands. However, the unrestricted use of fertilizers and pesticides has also resulted in significant damage to the environment.
History and Food
Indonesia's 17,508 islands have attracted traders, pirates, and adventurers from all over the world throughout its history. Located among ancient trading routes and rich with botanical resources, these remote islands quickly became a global interest. Spices were valued not only for their flavor, but also for their ability to disguise spoiled foods, freshen breath, and remedy health problems. Though eastern Indonesia's "Spice Islands" received most of the attention, the country's cuisine, as a whole, developed largely as a result of spice-seeking immigrants.
Rice, the country's staple food, dates back as early as 2300 B.C. Ancient meals consisted of fish, fruits, and vegetables, including bananas, yams, coconut, and sugar cane. Trade with the Chinese, which first began around 2000 B.C., influenced Indonesian cuisine and is still evident through the use of tea, noodles, cabbage, mustard, soybeans, and the method of stir-frying. The Chinese dish, nasi goreng (fried rice), is one of Indonesia's national dishes.
By 100 A.D., curries (spicy sauces), cucumbers, onions, mangoes, and eggplant were brought over by traders and Hindu missionaries from India. Ginger, cumin, cardamom, coriander, and fennel were also introduced, adding to the wide variety of spices. Around the 1400s, Muslims from the Middle East began incorporating goat and lamb dishes into the Indonesian diet, as well as yogurt-based sauces (though coconut milk is now used in its place).
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to significantly affect Indonesian cuisine. They took control of trade routes to and from the islands, bringing with them cassava (a tropical root crop) and sweet potatoes. Cauliflower, cabbage, and turnips were brought to the islands about a century later by the powerful Dutch East Indies Company, which gained control of the trading routes. Though the Spanish contributed peanuts, tomatoes, corn, and the widely popular chili pepper, they were unable to defeat the Dutch, who ruled until the mid-1900s.
See Nasi Goreng (Fried Rice) recipe.
See Kelapa Susu (Coconut Milk) recipe.
See Rujak (Spicy Fruit Salad) recipe.
Dressing:
- 1 teaspoon chili powder
- 1 Tablespoon dark soy sauce
- ½ cup dark brown sugar
- 2 Tablespoons lime (or lemon) juice
Procedure
- Place all fruits and vegetables into a bowl and mix thoroughly.
- In a separate bowl, combine dressing ingredients.
- Pour the dressing over the fruits and vegetables. Chill before serving.
Serves 4 to 6.
Foods of the Indonesians
The combination of geographic and cultural diversity in Indonesia has resulted in one of the most unique cuisines in the world. Although meals are generally simple, the plentiful use of various roots, spices, grasses, and leaves adds zest to most dishes. The common use of the chili pepper may mislead some to believe that all Indonesian dishes are spicy and hot. On the contrary, the most widely used spices are coriander (which has a faint orange flavor), cumin, and ginger, all relatively mild spices. In addition, most Indonesian food is prepared with contrasting flavors, such as a spicy sweet or hot sauce served over a bed of plain white rice, a popular meal throughout the country.
Rice is Indonesia's most important staple food. It normally accompany every meal and is often the main ingredient for desserts and beverages. The two most common types are nasi putih (long-grain white rice) and nasi ketan (glutinous rice), a rice that is most often used to make cakes, snacks, and other sweet treats. Those who cannot afford rice, or who live in a region with poor soil or low rainfall, must rely on an alternative staple, such as yams or soybeans. The reliable abundance of seafood across the country can also bring relief to hungry families. Most social classes, however, can afford drinks sold at warungs (street-lined food stalls) and kaki lima (food carts), including fruity refreshments and sugar- and cream-filled teas.
The most common method for preparing food is frying, though grilling, simmering, steaming, and even stewing (most often with coconut milk) are also popular. Some of the most commonly fried items are bumbu (basic spice paste), which frequently accompanies rice, and various meats such as chicken, goat, or beef. The final preparation for many meals consists of adding coconut milk, an essential cooking ingredient and a thickener for many sauces.
For as many similarities that exist across the islands, there are just as many regional differences. Bali, the most widely recognized Indonesian island, is home to cooked duck and babi guling (pig). Minahasa enjoys mice and dog, and the Sundanese of West Java prefer their meat or fish cooked in the blood of buffalo or pig. Most Indonesians also enjoy durian, an oval, football-sized fruit, although many Westerners consider its smell to be foul and unappetizing.
See Uli Petataws (Sweet Potato Fritters) recipe.
See Sarikayo Telor (Steamed Egg and Coconut Milk Pudding) recipe.
See Sambal Kecap (Chili and Soy Sauce) recipe.
See Es Pokat or Es Avocad, Bali (Indonesian Avocado Drink) recipe.
See Tahu Goreng (Fried Tofu) recipe.
Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations
Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, and Hinduism are the five religions officially recognized by the Indonesian government. The vast majority (approximately 87 percent) adheres to Islam, giving Indonesia one of the largest percentages of Muslims in the world.
Islam is the predominant religion throughout the country, maintaining five of the twelve national holidays. Puasa (Ramadan), a month-long observance of fasting and celebration, is the most important time of the year for Muslims. During Puasa, families rise as early as 3 A.M. to consume as much food as possible before dawn. The fast is broken every day after sunset, when groups come together for a large feast. Lebaran (also called Hari Raya or Eid al-Fitr) marks the end of Puasa, as well as the return of regular eating habits. Among family and friends, Muslims often prepare ketupat, blocks of rice cooked in coconut or palm leaves. Cake and cookies are served with a seemingly bottomless pot of tea.
Selamatan is a uniquely Indonesian tradition. The custom of praying to a God before a significant event (such as marriage or building a new house) is still practiced by most. Following the prayer (and at the kickoff of most major events throughout the country), tumpeng, a cone-shaped mountain of steamed yellow rice, is sliced at the top and served.
Hari Raya Nyepi, the Hindu New Year (also known as the Hindu Day of Silence), is most elaborately celebrated on Bali, home to the greatest Indonesian Hindu population. On New Year's Eve, food is prepared for the following day (particularly homemade pastries and sweetmeats) when Hindus refrain from all activities, including food preparation. Streets are deserted and tourists are often not allowed to leave their hotel.
Secular (nonreligious) holidays offer more reasons to indulge in celebratory feasts. The most popular is Hari Proklamasi Kemerdekaan (Independence Day), celebrating Indonesia's independence from Holland on August 17, 1945. One of the most spirited observances takes place in Jakarta, Indonesia's capital. The city and its citizens prepare for the festivities several weeks ahead of time. Money is raised for contests such as the krupuk udang (shrimp crackers)eating children's contests and the women's baking contest, which is usually an attempt to make the largest tumpeng.
The memory of Raden Kartini, Indonesia's first woman emancipationist, is celebrated every April 21. In her honor, traditional family roles are reversed on this day, leaving the responsibility of cooking and housecleaning to fathers and children.
See Pisang Goreng (Fried Banana Cakes) recipe.
See Teh Halia (Hot Ginger Tea, Ambon) recipe.
See Nasi Kuning (Yellow Rice) recipe.
See Gado Gado (Vegetable Salad with Peanut Sauce) recipe.
Mealtime Customs
Mealtime is typically a casual and solitary affair for Indonesians, who often choose to snack on a variety of small dishes throughout the day, rather than three larger meals. Indonesian women gather needed provisions early in the day, including picking fresh fruits and vegetables from their own gardens or purchasing ingredients from the local market. Once the meals are prepared, they are usually left, at room temperature, on the kitchen table for family members to nibble on whenever they are hungry.
When separate larger meals are consumed, makan pagi (breakfast) is normally a bowl of fried rice, noodles, or soto (soup), accompanied by Java coffee (which has become world famous) or tea. Makan siang (lunch) is often the main meal of the day, followed by makan malam (dinner) after the workday has ended. The base of most meals is nasi (rice).
When a meal is enjoyed together, the prepared dishes are usually placed in the middle of a table or a floor mat so everyone may share. Rijstafel (meaning "rice table"), an idea brought to the islands by the Dutch, almost always includes nasi, accompanied by a variety of meats and vegetables for the purpose of contrasting flavors and textures. Hot and spicy dishes will often be served with a distinct texture, such as crunchy peanuts or krupuk (crispy crackers), or a contrasting flavor, such as a creamy gravy, palm sugar, or kecap manis, a sweet soy sauce.
Similar to a small convenience store in the United States, Indonesia's warung provide villages and towns with a place for social gathering and a quick bite or refreshing drink. Giant krupuks are commonly sold to children rushing off to school, while adults may prefer a refreshing banana and milk beverage or nasi campur (boiled rice topped with meat, vegetables, and egg). Students normally eat the foods offered to them by their school, which usually include sweet potatoes, rice, corn, fruits and vegetables, and chocolate milk made from powdered milk imported from the United States. (According to the United Kingdom's independent charity, Milk for Schools (MFS), chocolate milk is thought to have boosted school attendance among low-income households by 20 percent in the late 1990s.)
See Nasi Jagung (Corn Rice) recipe.
Politics, Economics, and Nutrition
About 6 percent of the population of Indonesia is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 34 percent are underweight, and more than 42 percent are stunted (short for their age).
The economic crisis of the late 1990s took a toll on the welfare of the nation's children; infant mortality nearly doubled between 1995 and 1998. As of 1999, UNICEF estimated that eight million pre-school-age children suffered from malnutrition. In 1994-95, only 63 percent of the population had access to safe water, and 55 percent had adequate sanitation. In addition, severe drought caused Indonesia to be the world's number one importer of rice in 1998. However, Indonesia has received much help from the UN, particularly through the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF, in solving health problems. The Ministry of Health is also seeking to build up a health service to provide more facilities and better-trained personnel.
Further Study
Books
Anderson, Susan. Indonesian Flavors. Berkeley, CA: Frog, Ltd., 1995.
Backshall, Stephen and David Leffman, Lesley Reader, and Henry Stedman. Indonesia: The Rough Guide. London: Rough Guides Ltd., 1999.
Food of Indonesia, The. Singapore: Periplus Editions Ltd., 1995.
Jeys, Kevin (ed.). Indonesia Handbook: Sixth Edition. Chico, California: Moon Publications, Inc., 1995.
Lonely Planet Publications. Lonely Planet: Indonesia (6th ed.). Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2000.
Marks, Copeland. The Exotic Kitchens of Indonesia: Recipes from the Outer Islands. New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc., 1989.
Peterson, Joan and David. Eat Smart in Indonesia. Madison, WI: Gingko Press, Inc., 1997.
Web Sites
GlobalGourmet.com. [Online] Available http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/indonesia/ (accessed March 21, 2001).
Living in Indonesia, Site for Expatriates. [Online] Available http://www.expat.or.id/ (accessed March 19, 2001).
Milk for Schools. [Online] Available http://www.milkforschools.org.uk/analysis.htm (accessed March 20, 2001).
Selamatan Ceremony. [Online] Available http://www.hebatindo.com/infopages/selamatan_eng.htm (accessed March 20, 2001).
Tourism Indonesia. [Online] Available http://www.tourismindonesia.com/ (accessed March 16, 2001).
WorldBank. [Online] Available http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/RDV/food.nsf/All+Documents/E7106FA4CB0364A9852568960058FEC5?OpenDocument (accessed March 20, 2001).
National Anthem:
National Anthem of: Indonesia
Indonesia Tanah Airku, Tanah Tumpah Darahku,
Di sanalah aku berdiri, jadi pandu ibuku.
Indonesia kebangsaanku, bangsa dan tanah airku,
Marilah kita berseru, Indonesia bersatu.
Hiduplah tanahku, hiduplah negeriku,
Bangsaku, rakyatku, semuanya.
Bangunlah jiwanya, bangunlah badannya,
Untuk Indonesia Raya.
Indonesia Raya, Merdeka, Merdeka
Tanahku, negeriku yang kucinta.
Indonesia Raya, Merdeka, Merdeka
Hiduplah Indonesia Raya.
Indonesia Raya, Merdeka, Merdeka
Tanahku, negeriku yang kucinta.
Indonesia Raya, Merdeka, Merdeka
Hiduplah Indonesia Raya.
by Wage Rudolf Soepratman
Wikipedia:
Indonesia
| Republik Indonesia
Republic of Indonesia
|
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
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"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity" National ideology: Pancasila[1] |
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| Anthem Indonesia Raya |
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|
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| Capital (and largest city) |
Jakarta |
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| Official languages | Indonesian | |||||
| Government | Presidential Republic | |||||
| - | President | Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono | ||||
| - | Vice President | Muhammad Jusuf Kalla | ||||
| Independence | from the Netherlands | |||||
| - | Declared | 17 August 1945 | ||||
| - | Recognized | 27 December 1949 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | sq mi |
||||
| - | Water (%) | 4.85 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | July 2007 est. estimate | 234,693,997 (4th) | ||||
| - | 2000 census | 206,264,595 | ||||
| - | Density | 134/km² (84th) /sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $1,038 billion[2] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $4,616[3] | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $408 billion[2] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $1,812[2] | ||||
| Gini? (2002) | 34.3 (medium) | |||||
