nirvana

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n

Definition: paradise
Antonyms: hell, purgatory

In Buddhism, the perfect or beatific state, characterized by the extinction of desires and passions, and the transcending of the separate existence of the self.

(Pāli, nibbāna). The summum bonum of Buddhism and goal of the Eightfold Path. The attainment of nirvāṇa marks the end of cyclic existence in saṃsāra, the condition to which it forms the antithesis, and in the context of which nirvāṇa has to be understood. Saṃsāra is thus the problem to which nirvāṇa is the solution. The word nirvāṇa is formed from the negative suffix nir and a Sanskrit root which may be either vā, meaning to blow, or vṛ, meaning to cover. Both connote images of extinguishing a flame, in the first case by blowing it out and in the second by smothering it or starving it of fuel. Of these two etymologies, early sources generally prefer the latter, suggesting that they understood nirvāṇa as a gradual process, like cutting off the fuel to a fire and letting the embers die down, rather than as a sudden or dramatic event. The popular notion that nirvana is the ‘blowing out of a flame’ is thus not widely supported in the canonical literature. In general, nirvāṇa is described in negative terms as the end or absence of undesirable things, such as suffering (duḥkha), although positive epithets also occur, notably the famous description of nirvāṇa as the ‘Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed’ found at Udāna 8. 3.

It is important to distinguish two kinds of nirvāṇa: the first is the moral and spiritual transformation that takes place in life, and the second is the condition that subsists in the post-mortem state. The former is known as ‘nirvāṇa with remainder’ (sopādiśeṣa-nirvāṇa) and the latter as ‘nirvāṇa without remainder’ (anupādiśeṣa-nirvāṇa) or ‘final nirvāṇa’ (parinirvāṇa) although in the earliest sources nirvāṇa and parinirvāṇa are used interchangeably. The former is attained through the destruction of the defilements known as the outflows (āśrava), and the latter is characterized by bringing to a halt for all time the dynamic activity of the psycho-physical factors (saṃskāra) that compose the human individual. One in the latter condition is free from the effects of karma, but one in the former is not, although no new karma will be produced.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Bodhisattva ideal diminishes the importance of nirvāṇa as a religious goal. This is because the Bodhisattva makes a vow not to enter nirvāṇa until all other beings have entered before him. Nirvāṇa thus becomes a collective endeavour rather than a personal one. As new doctrinal positions emerge, moreover, the concept of nirvāṇa undergoes development and is understood differently according to the philosophical perspective of the main schools. The Madhyamaka, for example, famously conclude that one who perceives emptiness (śūnyatā) as the true nature of phenomena will see nirvāṇa and saṃsāra as co-terminous. The Yogācāra school also teaches that the cessation of dualistic mental discrimination will lead to the realization that the opposition between nirvāṇa and saṃsāra is merely conceptual. Schools such as zen Buddhism also emphasize that for those who are awakened and perceive with insight (prajñā), nirvāṇa saturates every aspect of saṃsāra. Certain texts also elaborate a distinction between two types of nirvāṇa, mirroring the one made in the early sources between nirvāṇa in this life and final nirvāṇa. In the Mahāyāna these are known as localized (pratiṣṭhita) and unlocalized (apratiṣṭhita) nirvāṇa. The latter corresponds to the state of parinirvāṇa, but in the former a Buddha remains ‘in the world but not of it’, free of any attachment to saṃsāra but accessible to help suffering beings.

Nirvāna is a Buddhist (see Buddhism) reworking of the Hindu (see Hinduism) ideal of mokṣa (see Mokṣa), or “liberation,” from the cycles of death and regeneration called saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra). It has become commonplace in the West to associate nirvāna with some sort of afterlife (see Afterlife), but, in fact, it is more an ideal or a state. Gautama Buddha (see Gautama Buddha) achieved nirvāna under the Bodhi tree (see Bodhi Tree). Nirvāna is essentially Enlightenment, but spiritual enlightenment or release in this world from the agony of the human condition. By overcoming the illusory powers of human desires, the individual can achieve nirvāna, which means, literally, “no wind” or “extinction” of the sense of self that is, in any case, illusion or delusion. For different sects of Buddhism, the paths to nirvāna are different. For some it can be achieved through discipline and asceticism in this life. For others it is synonymous with immortality. For those who see saṃsāra as life itself, nirvāna is sometimes “the farther shore” or almost a physical afterlife. For most Mahāyāna Buddhists (see Mahāyāna Buddhism) Enlightenment is a way of living in this world, a state of mind. Thus the tradition of bodhisattvas (see Bodhisattvas) developed, in which the nearly enlightened individual remains in this world to help others move toward nirvāna. In this connection, there are several understandings of nirvāna. There are Buddhists who see enlightenment as instantaneous; some who see it as a process taking eons, through various deaths and rebirths; and some who see it as something to be achieved gradually in this life. Among more esoteric Buddhists—especially in Tibet (see Tibetan Buddhism) and Japan (see Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Afterlife), ritual acts can relate the practitioner directly to the reality of the Buddha's Enlightenment, so that the act of worship becomes a sacramental participation in the actual Buddha nature, perhaps a type of temporary mystical union. The Japanese followers of Amida Buddha (see Amida Buddha) speak of the Pure Land (see Pure Land) paradise—in reality a state of being—into which the believer must be reborn before Enlightenment can be achieved. Such enlightenment can result in the individual's returning to this life as a teaching bodhisattva.

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The term "Nirvana," first suggested by Barbara Low and acknowledged and used by Freud, is intimately connected with the development of the concepts of the pleasure/unpleasure principle. The concept has a long history, and contributed to Freud's understanding of the infantile wish-fulfilling character of dreams.

In Chapter Seven of The Interpretation of Dreams(1900a), in which Freud conceptualized the mental apparatus, he suggested that, to begin with, the apparatus is directed towards keeping itself as free from stimuli as possible in accordance with the "Principle of Constancy." This principle was already a basic assumption, and had appeared as such in many of Freud's earlier writings—for example in a letter to Josef Breuer (June 29, [1892] 1960a) and in various sections of Part One of the Project for a Scientific Psychology (1950c [1895]), through in quasi-neurological terms. But as Freud indicated in a footnote added in 1914 to the dream book, the concept is explored more fully in his paper on "The Two Principles of Mental Functioning" (1911b).

The Lust/Unlust-pleasure/pain principle is described there as the governing purpose of the primary process. There is a continued striving towards gaining pleasure, and a retreat from anything that might arouse unpleasurable affect. It is precisely the latter that dreams seek to avoid: when the state of rest is disturbed by internal needs, an attempt is made to achieve satisfaction in a hallucinatory manner.

With the emergence of the secondary process, reality is at least recognized, even when disagreeable; and the individual now must seek pleasure in accordance with what is possible in the circumstances in which they find themselves. To put the matter in energic terms: unpleasure was associated with a rise in excitation; pleasure with its reduction and discharge, and, with the acquisition of the reality principle, this discharge of excitation, once sought as a peremptory demand under the influence of the pleasure principle, now has to wait until reality presents the necessary conditions or until those conditions can be brought about. (Pleasure can, of course, always be expressed in fantasy and day dreams, whatever the circumstances.) The search for pleasure, it will be observed, is related to, but not identical with, the "Principle of Constancy" referred to above.

Already, especially in the paper Instincts and their Vicissitudes (1915c), Freud had stated that the relation existing between pleasure and unpleasure on the one hand, and the rise and the "fluctuations of the amounts of stimuli affecting mental life," on the other, was no simple matter, and that the relations were many, various, and in need of elucidation.

In Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920g) Freud reformulated his two classes of instincts and opposed the one, Eros or the Life Instinct, with the destructive or Death Instinct. The aim of the Death Instinct was to get rid of life through the running down of the organism, and therefore of the tensions within it. This "dominating tendency of mental life"—"to reduce, to keep constant or to remove internal tensions due to stimuli"—was called the "Nirvana principle," a term suggested by Barbara Low and here adopted by Freud.

The difficulties and anomalies inherent in these formulations were reconsidered by Freud in The Economic Problem of Masochism (1924c). Re-affirming his adoption of the Nirvana principle, he pointed out that, if the pleasure principle were identical with it, that principle would be "in the service of the death instincts" and would act as a warning against the demands of the life instincts that threatened to disturb the intended course of life. But that view, said Freud, could not be correct. Furthermore, in the series of tensions and their increase and decrease, there were pleasurable tensions (for example, sexual excitation) and unpleasurable relaxations of tensions. Pleasure and unpleasure could not depend on some quantitative factor alone, but on some qualitative characteristics. It might be "the rhythm, the temporal sequence of changes, rises and falls in the quantity of stimulus." Freud added: "We do not know." Whatever the truth of the matter, the Nirvana principle had undergone a modification in living organisms through which it had become the pleasure principle. "Henceforward," he continued, "we shall avoid regarding the two principles as one." And he concluded by saying that the Nirvana principle expressed the trend of the death instinct; the pleasure principle represented the demands of the libido; and the modification of the latter principle, the reality principle, represented the influence of the external world.

It may be worth adding that an optimum level of tension normally gives life its sense of vividness and alertness. Reduction of tension to zero, unless transient, is often pathological, and found, for example, in states of depression, some kinds of depersonalization, and in the anergic forms of schizophrenia.

Bibliography

Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part II. SE, 5: 339-625.

——. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.

——. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14: 109-140.

——. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.

——. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE, 19: 155-170.

——. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology. SE, 1: 281-387.

——. (1960a [1873-1939]). Letters of Sigmund Freud,1873-1939 (Ernst L. Freud, Ed.; Tania and James Stern, Trans.). London: Hogarth, 1970.

—CLIFFORD YORKE

A cynical view of the world by Ambrose Bierce

n.

In the Buddhist religion, a state of pleasurable annihilation awarded to the wise, particularly to those wise enough to understand it.

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IN BRIEF: An ideal place of harmony and joy.

Yes, there is a Nirvana; it is in leading your sheep to a green pasture, and in putting your child to sleep, and in writing the last line of your poem. — Kahlil Gibran (1883-1931), Lebanese mystical poet, philosopher & painter.

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For The Record...

Members include Kurt Cobain (grew up in Aberdeen, 11 WA; son of Wendy O’Connor [a cocktail waitress]; married Courtney Love [a singer], February 24, 1992; children: Frances Bean), guitar and vocals, Dave Grohl (from Washington, DC), drums, and Chris Novoselic (from Aberdeen; wife’s name, Shelli), bass. Cobain and Novoselic attended the Grays Harbor Institute of Northwest Crafts. Group formed by Cobain and Novoselic, 1987; Grohl joined after succession of several drummers; played in clubs in Olympia, Tacoma, and Seattle, WA; signed with Sub Pop Records, 1988, released Bleach, 1989; toured Europe as opening act, 1989; signed with DGC record company, 1990, released Nevermind, 1991; toured the U.S., 1991. Awards: Triple platinum award, for Nevermind. Addresses: Record company—DGC, 9130 Sunset Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90069.

Rock band

Three Seattle musicians who play what has become known as "grunge" rock seemed an unlikely bet for acceptance into the rock and roll establishment. Decidedly punkish in their musical style—albeit at a slower pace than was the hallmark of punk rock— strident in their lyrics, and unapologetic of their calcu-lated-to-offend offstage personalities, the group nonetheless went from the "underground" status of their initial release, Bleach, to mega-stardom with their first major-label effort, Nevermind, within the space of a few years. The latter, featuring Kurt Cobain on guitar and vocals, Chris Novoselic on bass, and David Grohl on drums, jumped to the Number One spot on the Billboard rock chart and was cited in many music critics’ Top Ten lists just months after its release.

Cobain and Novoselic grew up near Seattle, in Aberdeen, Washington, a secluded logging town 70 miles southwest of Seattle known largely for its overcast climate. Cobain’s youth was often chaotic—he lived in a trailer park with his cocktail waitress mother after the breakup of his parents’ marriage. Before his parents

split up, Cobain’s mother recounted in Rolling Stone, he "got up every day with such joy that there was another day to be had. When we’d go downtown to the stores, he would sing to people." After the divorce, though, Cobain’s personality underwent a transformation. "I think he was ashamed," his mother continued, "and he became very inward—he just held everything."

Until the age of nine, Cobain listened mostly to the Beatles. Then his father introduced him to heavier fare—Led Zeppelin, Kiss, and Black Sabbath. He started playing drums and hanging around with an Aberdeen group called the Melvins. Melvins leader Buzz Osborne took Cobain to a Black Flag concert, where he got his first taste of hard-core punk. Cobain was awed; he began to experiment with the guitar and tried to form a band. "I learned one Cars song and AC/DCs ‘Back in Black, " he told Elle. "And after that I just started writing my own. I didn’t feel it was important to learn other songs because I knew I wanted to start a band." After repeatedly failing to get a group together, Osborne suggested that Cobain hook up with Chris Novoselic, a tall, shy Aberdeen kid two years older than Cobain.

Cobain and Novoselic Bound by Punk
According to Nirvana’s record company press biography, Cobain and Novoselic had met at the Grays Harbor Institute of Northwest Crafts, where they were apparently "gluing seashells and driftwood on burlap" and making mobiles of macaroni. Like Cobain, Novoselic had moved around a lot as a kid—they felt they were both misfits in a way. They further shared an appreciation for the hard-core music that was generally shunned by their heavy metal-loving peers. A tape of the San Francisco punk band Flipper cemented their commitment to the genre. "It made me realize there was something more cerebral to listen to than stupid cock rock," Novoselic told Elle. Exhibiting total rebellion against what they saw as the red-necked, macho establishment of their hometown, they spray painted the phrases "God is Gay," "Abort Jesus," and "Homosexual sex rules," on cars and bank buildings. For one offense Cobain was arrested and fined.

Cobain’s mother kicked him out of the house after he quit high school. Homeless, he slept on friends’ couches and even briefly found lodging under a bridge. By 1987, however, he and Novoselic were beginning to gain a reputation as Nirvana and were a hit at parties at Evergreen State College in Olympia.

With the help of Melvins drummer Dale Crover, the trio began to record, finishing ten songs in one afternoon taping session. The resulting demo was submitted to Sub Pop, Seattle’s then-underground label, the directors of which signed them to a record contract right away. In 1988, after changing drummers, the band recorded Bleach in six days for $606.17. The album moved slowly at first, but eventually sold 35,000 copies between its debut and the release of the band’s second effort, which caused a surge of Bleach sales.

Caught in Bidding War
After Bleach, Nirvana began looking for yet another drummer, this time settling, in the fall of 1990, on Dave Grohl of the Washington, D.C., band Scream. This lineup returned to the studio to find that the Nirvana sound had improved significantly. When Sub Pop sought a distributor for the upcoming second album, a bidding war ensued among record labels interested in buying Nirvana out of their Sub Pop contract. The group eventually signed to DGC, home of giants Guns ‘n’ Roses and Cher, for $287,000. Rumors persisted, however, that the label had shelled out up to $750,000 to obtain the trio. Cobain commented in Spin that those reports were "journalism through hearsay," adding that "the numbers kept getting bigger so that a lot of people believed that we were signed for a million dollars."

The group had mixed feelings about signing to a major label; they feared they would be labeled "sellouts" for trading their underground status for the promise of big money. But the opportunity to get their music heard by a larger audience—and thus spread their message to the mainstream—mitigated these concerns. Nirvana released Nevermind in the spring of 1991; the record took three weeks to record and earned the trio $135,000. Producer Butch Vig instinctively felt that the unintelligible, but mesmerizing, cut "Smells like Teen Spirit" would be a hit, even before it was completed in the studio. "It was awesome sounding," he told Rolling Stone. "I was pacing around the room, trying not to jump up and down in ecstasy."

Nevermind a Phenomena
Vig’s prophecy came true: The Nevermind single "Smells Like Teen Spirit" soared to Number One after only a few months of airplay. The accompanying video, featuring a somewhat sinister high school pep rally—Cobain has said the song is about teenage apathy—complete with tattooed cheerleaders, a bald custodian, writhing fans, and pointedly unkempt band members, received heavy rotation on MTV. "Smells" earned perhaps the ultimate tribute when it was lampooned by rock parodist "Weird Al" Yankovic, whose own video was entitled "Smells Like Nirvana." And yet the most distinguishing aspect of Nevermind may have been that, as New York Times contributor Karen Schoemer pointed out, "Nirvana didn’t cater to the mainstream; it played the game on its own terms…. What’s unusual about [the album] is that it caters to neither a mainstream audience nor the indie rock fans who supported the group’s debut album…." Calling the release "one of the best alternative rock albums produced by an American band in recent years," Schoemer continued, "Nevermind is accessible but not tame. It translates the energy and abandon of college rock in clear, certain terms."

In performance, Nirvana pays homage to angry punks past—dating as far back as the mid-1960s guitar destruction of then-"mod" Pete Townshend, leader of Britain’s the Who—by smashing their equipment onstage; Cobain has estimated that he’s probably destroyed around 300 guitars. This behavior seems to please Nirvana’s legions of fans, who throng to their shows in anticipation of such antics.

Despite Nirvana’s rapid climb to the top, Cobain and company have tried to keep a balanced attitude. They rejected a limousine ride to their Saturday Night Live performance because they didn’t want to be treated like stars. Cobain has of late refrained from drugs and the standard rock-star revelry, partially in deference to a recurring and painful stomach ailment. When questioned about the band’s success, Cobain revealed in Elle "Well, it’s a fine thing and a flattering thing, but it doesn’t matter. We could be dropped in two years and go back to putting out records ourselves and it wouldn’t matter to us, because success is not what we were looking for…. We just want people to be able to get the records."

Selected discography
Blew (EP), Sub Pop, 1989.
Bleach, Sub Pop, 1989.
Nevermind, DGC, 1991.

Sources
Elle, April 1992.
Guitar Player, February 1992.
Newsweek, January 27, 1992.
New York Times, January 8, 1992; January 13, 1992; January 26, 1992.
People, December 23, 1991.
Pulse!, March 1992.
Rolling Stone, November 28, 1991; February 20, 1992.
Spin, January 1992.
Additional information for this profile was obtained from a David Geffen Company press biography, 1991.

For a list of words related to nirvana, see:

• German, Greek, and Other Languages - nirvana: Sanskrit. extinction of desire and achievement of perfect holiness
• Mystical States and Experiences - nirvana: highest state of enlightenment, salvation, harmony, and transcendence

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See words rhyming with "nirvana."

Dansk (Danish)
n. - nirvana

Nederlands (Dutch)
nirvana, zevende hemel

Français (French)
n. - nirvana

Deutsch (German)
n. - Nirwana (Seligkeitszustand im Buddhismus), völlige Ruhe des Geistes

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (θρησκ.) νιρβάνα

Italiano (Italian)
nirvana

Português (Portuguese)
n. - nirvana (m)

Русский (Russian)
нирвана

Español (Spanish)
n. - nirvana

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - nirvana

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
涅盘, 天堂

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 涅盤, 天堂

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 열반, 해탈

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 涅槃, 解脱, 脱却, 至福, 極楽

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) النرفانا : السعادة القصوى‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮נירוונה, בבודהיזם: אושר מושלם ושחרור מהגורל ע"י הכחדת האישיות‬

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