Engineering

Aggregate is the granular material used in asphalt concrete mixtures which make up 90-95 percent of the mixture weight and provides most of the load bearing characteristics of the mix. Therefore, the quality and physical properties of the aggregates are critical to the pavement performance. The following is recommended:

• (1) Aggregates should be nonplastic. The presence of clay fines in an asphalt mix can result in problems with volume swell and adhesion of asphalt to the rock contributing to stripping problems. The minus #4 sieve material should have a minimum sand equivalent value of 45 using the test method described in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specification (AASHTO T-176).
• (2) A limit should be placed on the amounts of deleterious materials permitted in the aggregates. Specifications should limit clay lumps and friable particles to a maximum of one percent.
• (3) Durability or weathering resistance should be determined by sulfate soundness testing. Specifications should require a sodium or magnesium sulfate test using the limits described in the AASHTO specification M-29.
• (4) Aggregate resistance to abrasion should be determined. Specifications should require a Los Angeles abrasion loss of 45 percent or less (AASHTO T-96).
• (5) Friction between aggregate particles is dependent on aggregate surface roughness and area of contact. As surface friction increases, so does resistance of the mix to deformation. Specifications should require at least 60 percent of the plus #4 sieve material to have at least two mechanically induced fractured faces.
• (6) The quality of natural sand varies considerably from one location to another. Since most natural sands are rounded and often contain a high percentage of undesirable materials, the amount of natural sand as a general rule should be limited to 15 to 20 percent for high volume pavements and 20 to 25 percent for medium and low volume pavements. These percentages may increase or decrease depending on quality of the natural sand and the types of traffic to which the pavement will be subjected.
• (7) For adequate control, aggregate gradations should be specified from the maximum particle size to the #200 sieve so each successive sieve opening is about 1/2 the previous sieve opening (for example, 1 inch, 1/2 inch, #4, #8, #16, #30, #50, #100, #200). The only accurate method to determine the amount of minus #200 sieve material is to perform a wash gradation in accordance with AASHTO T-27 and AASHTO T-11.
• (8) The ratio of dust (minus #200 sieve material) to asphalt cement, by mass, is critical. Asphalt concrete mixes should require a maximum dust asphalt ratio of 1.2 and a minimum of 0.6.
• (9) A tool which is very useful in evaluating aggregate gradations is the 0.45 power gradation chart. All mixes should be plotted on these charts as part of the mix design process (Attachment 1).

• (10) An aggregate's specific gravity and absorption characteristics are extremely important in proportioning and controlling the mixture. It is recommended that AASHTO T-209 be used to determine the maximum specific gravity of asphalt concrete mixes. States not using AASHTO T-209 should be aware of the difficulty of determining the theoretical maximum density using individual ingredient specific gravities and their percentages in the mixture. These difficulties will result in inaccuracies in determining the specific gravity of the mixture. These inaccuracies will carry through to the calculation of the densities in the compacted mat and may result in improperly compacted pavements. It is also necessary to determine the bulk dry specific gravity of the aggregate in order to determine the voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA).

  The target value for VMA should be obtained through the proper distribution of aggregate gradation to provide adequate asphalt film thickness on each particle and accommodate the design air void system. In addition, tolerance used in construction quality control should be such that the mix designed is actually produced in the field.

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying the laws of mechanics of practical problems. in fact, without such assumptions, it is not feasible to arrive at practical solutions. The experience in the past centuries has shown that the following idealization could be made as they do not bring down the accuracy of the analytical results below the optimum level required by engineers to deal with practical diagram.

Continuum

A body consists of several particles. It is a well known fact that each particle can be sub-divided into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not feasible to solve any engineering problem by treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles. The body is assumed to consist of a continuous distribution of matter which will not separate even when various forces considered are acting simultaneously. In other words, we say the body is treated as a continuum.

Rigid Body

As already stated, in Civil Engineering, we treat a body as rigid, when the relative position of any two particles in the body do not change even after the application of a system of forces. For examples, let the body shown in figure (a) move to a position as shown in figure (b) when the system of forces F2 and F3 are applied. If the body is treated as a rigid body, the relative position of A to B is the same as A' and B', i.e.,

AB = A'B'

Particle

A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Theoretically, such a body cannot exist; while dealing with the problems involving distances which are considerably larger compared to the size of the body, the size of the body may be neglected without sacrificing the accuracy, the example are as follows:

• A bomber aeroplane is a particle for a gunner operating from the ground.
• A ship in a mid sea is a particle in the study of relative motion from the control in a part.
• In the study of the movement of earth in celestial space, earth is treated as a particle.